Speaking to Persuade/Advocacy

GILLIAN, BONANNO, M.A.

Defining Persuasion and Advocacy

Persuasion is “the act of influencing someone to do something or to change their mind” (“Persuasion”). In a persuasive presentation, the goal is to provide the audience with information that will convince them to see your side on an issue.  According to Cialdini and Goldstein, “the six basic principles that govern how one person might influence another are: liking, reciprocation, consistency, scarcity, social validation, and authority” (41).

1. First, an individual may be more likely to be persuaded by someone that they “like” which ranges from knowing someone personally to having an “instant bond” with a stranger (Cialdini and Goldstein, 41).
2.  Reciprocation refers to the notion that there is an exchange of some kind, such as in business negotiations (Cialdini and Goldstein, 45).
3. Consistency encourages individuals to persuade others by recognizing “a fundamental human tendency to be and to appear consistent with one’s actions, statements, and beliefs” (Cialdini and Goldstein, 45).
4. Scarcity principle focuses on the idea that “items and opportunities that are in short supply or unavailable tend to be more desirable than those… that are plentiful and more accessible” (Cialdini and Goldstein, 46). For example, think about a product that you may be interested in purchasing.  If the product is limited in production or availability, it might persuade you to be more interested in purchasing the item.
5. Social validation refers to the idea that individuals “look to others for cues,” and this will influence their decisions (Cialdini and Goldstein, 48). 
6. Finally, authority suggests that individuals are persuaded by those they consider to have an expertise in a particular area (Cialdini and Goldstein, 49).

These six principles provide some examples of how an individual (or an audience) can be persuaded. There are certainly other methods and note that not all these principles need to be included in a persuasive presentation for it to be effective.

In addition to the principles listed above, you may consider choosing a basis, or claim,  for formulating an argument.  This chapter will address three types of persuasive speech claims: questions of fact, value, and policy.  In general:

• Claims of fact are quantifiable statements that focus on the accuracy, correctness, or validity of such statements and can be verified using some objective evidence.
• Claims of value are qualitative statements that focus on judgments made about the environment and invite comparisons.
• Claims of policy are statements that focus on actions that should be taken to change the status quo” (Types of Claims).

Let’s explore each claim above in more detail, starting with a discussion of statements of fact.

A claim of fact is “something quantifiable has existed, does exist, or will exist” (Types of Claims). This type of claim focuses on data that may not necessarily be refutable based on quantitative data used to present your side of an issue.  There are many examples of speeches that use statements of fact as a basis for an argument.  The claim may stem from something that you do every day (such as brushing your teeth or taking a walk), but you may want to persuade the audience that they should also do these things if they are not already doing so.  In these examples, you may state something specific and able to be verified such as, ‘Brushing your teeth twice a day can decrease tooth decay’ or ‘Walking every day decreases the risk of cardiovascular disease’ and then support these claims with clear statistics, charts, or data that will help them to embrace your claim.  (Please note that the claims above are simply examples, and data is not included to support or refute these claims in this chapter.)

You may also wish to consider a speech that addresses a question of value.

A claim of value “asserts qualitative judgments along a good-to-bad continuum relating to persons, events, and things in one’s environment” (Types of Claims).  This type of speech may include more qualitative data, such as open-ended responses.  The claim of value may include words such as good, bad, better, best, or worse.  These are often considered to be subjective terms (one person may have a different idea of good/bad/better/best/worst) and it is the responsibility of the presenter to define these subjective terms and also provide evidence to support the claims.  Some examples might include ‘Car X is better than Car Y’ or ‘Coffee is the best morning beverage.’  (Note that these are simply examples, and support for these claims is not provided in this chapter.)

In a claim of policy, the word “should” helps to formulate your argument.  Using the word “should”  is important as it “implies that some action ought to be taken, but not that it must or will be taken” (Types of Claims).

You may use this type of claim to address issues of politics, policies, health, environment, safety, or other larger global concerns.  Your speech will describe the reason why you feel that a policy or issue should (or should not) be addressed in a specific way based on your research. In this type of speech, you are asking your audience to support your solution to an issue that you have presented to them.  Examples may include “Policy A should be changed to include (mention what should be included)” or “College students should have access to (mention what students should have access to).”  Presenters for this type of speech should clearly explain the policy and then share with the audience why it should be changed (or upheld) by using their research to support the position.

Advocacy

Advocacy, on the other hand, is “the act or process of supporting a cause or proposal” (“Advocacy”).  An advocate feels strongly about an issue and will work diligently to encourage others to support their cause.  An advocate should be able to speak about an issue in a concise, professional, and persuasive manner.   Enthusiasm for a cause will shine through if the advocate thoroughly embraces the role.  This can be accomplished by conducting research, exploring opposing views on the issue at hand, preparing effective visual aids, and practicing the delivery of the content before a presentation or event.  An advocate takes on many forms.  A lawyer advocates for clients.  A patient may advocate for rights to care.  A student may advocate for a higher grade from a professor.

An advocate can be described as:

1) One who pleads the cause of another, specifically one who pleads the cause of another before a tribunal or judicial court.

2) One who defends or maintains a cause or proposal.

3) One who supports or promotes the interest of a cause or group (“Advocate”)

Types of Advocacy

There are many types of advocacy. This chapter will address self- advocacy, peer advocacy, and citizen advocacy.

Self- advocacy addresses the need for an individual to advocate for oneself.  Examples might include negotiating with a boss for a raise, or perhaps used when applying for college or health insurance. According to an advocacy website, Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights, “The goal of self-advocacy is for people to decide what they want and to carry out plans to help them get it …. the individual self-assesses a situation or problem and then speaks for his or her own needs.”

Individuals who share experiences, values, or positions will join together in a group advocacy setting.  This type of advocacy includes sharing ideas with one another and speaking collectively about issues. The groups “aim to influence public opinion, policy and service provision” and are often part of committees with varying “size, influence, and motive.” (Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights.)  Examples might include groups interested in protecting the environment, rights to adequate health care, addressing issues of diversity, equity, and/or inclusion, or working together to save an endangered species.

A citizen advocate involves local community members who work together to have a platform to address issues that affect their lives.  An example might include community school boards or participation in town hall meetings. (Advocacy: inclusion, empowerment and human rights)

As you can see, persuasion and advocacy have been defined in different ways.  As the presenter, you have the opportunity to persuade your audience, and can use these definitions to help you decide what type of advocate or persuasive presentation that you would like to develop. As you are developing these ideas, continue to narrow in on a topic that you are passionate about and can connect with the audience.

Here are some additional ideas to consider when choosing a topic:

• Choose a topic that is (relatively) new to you!  You may consider taking some time to explore a topic that you do not yet know about and/or one that you want to learn more about.  Perhaps you recently read, saw, or experienced something that you would like to research and share with your audience.  Maybe you began your process with not knowing which side you support on an issue, and you take some time to research both sides of an issue and determine which you support.  You can use this presentation as an opportunity to learn more about that topic and can then talk about this process in your presentation.  Using the research that you have gathered will help you as you explain to the audience why they should share your perspective on the item at hand.
• Choose a topic that you already know about and feel strongly that your audience should share your views on this topic.  For this type of presentation, you will be taking your knowledge and expanding it.  You can search for items that support your side and also take some time to review the data provided by those that support the opposite side of the issue.

Ready to Begin: Inspiration

Now it is your turn to persuade your audience.  Be the advocate!  Share your knowledge and passion with your classmates.  Use this chapter, the worksheets, and your own talents to help you with the process of writing, researching, outlining, and presenting.  Take your time with each step and enjoy the process.  Below are some voices of advocates discussing what they do and why they do it.  Perhaps these stories will inspire you as you work!  Survey data collected via surveymonkey.com, and some names have been changed.

References

“Advocacy.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocacy. Accessed 2 Jul. 2021.

“Advocacy: Inclusion, Empowerment and Human Rights.” Social Care Institute for Excellence (SCIE), Updated Oct. 2020, www.scie.org.uk/care-act-2014/advocacy-services/commissioning-independent-advocacy/inclusion-empowerment-human-rights/types.asp.

“Advocate.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/advocate.

Bonanno, G. “What does it mean to be an advocate?” Survey. November 2016.

Cialdini, Robert B., and Noah J. Goldstein. “The Science and Practice of Persuasion.” The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, vol. 43, no. 2, Elsevier Inc, 2002.

“Persuasion – Dictionary Definition.” Vocabulary.com, www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/persuasion.

Purdue Writing Lab. “Transitional Devices // Purdue Writing Lab.” Purdue Writing Lab, 2018, owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/mechanics/transitions_and_transitional_devices/transitional_devices.html#:~:text=Transitional%20devices%20are%20words%20or,jumps%20or%20breaks%20between%20ideas.

Marteni, Jim. “Types of Claims.” Social Science LibreTexts. Los Angeles Valley College, 3 Dec. 2020, https://socialsci.libretexts.org/@go/page/67166.