How Do Charitable Organizations Raise Money?

The Feed My Starving Children home page talks about millions of mothers putting their children to bed hungry every night. They share stories about the horrific effects of malnutrition. As you scroll, you encounter image after image of children and their families. They claim that more than 90% of donations to Feed My Starving Children go directly to feeding programs.

Charitable organizations like Feed My Starving Children effectively use these rhetorical strategies to connect emotionally with their audience, provide credible information, and establish trust, thereby motivating people to take action and support their cause.

But charities aren’t the only ones using rhetorical strategies. Individuals, groups, and organizations all employ these tactics for a variety of purposes, including political messaging, marketing, social media communication, advocacy, and business. In fact, whenever you see or hear any type of communication–whether it’s an academic article or a simple text message to a friend–rhetoric is being used.

In this chapter, you will learn how to recognize and use rhetorical strategies.

Why You Should Care

Rhetorical strategies are essential tools for effective communication. Mastering these techniques will enable you to craft compelling arguments, persuade diverse audiences, and elevate your overall communication skills.

Rhetoric=Persuasion

Rhetoric means to persuade. And we see and hear these persuasive techniques every day, from what we buy, where we choose to go, and how we communicate.

Most of our actions are persuasive in nature. Our choices about where we buy food (local farmers’ market vs. large supermarket), the types of diets we follow (vegan vs. keto), and the restaurants we dine at (gourmet organic vs. fast food) influence and persuade others about our values and lifestyle. These decisions reflect our preferences and can subtly encourage others to consider similar choices, highlighting the persuasive nature of everyday activities.

But what exactly is persuasion?

Persuasion is the act of influencing someone’s beliefs, attitudes, or actions through communication. It involves presenting arguments, evidence, and emotional appeals to convince others to adopt a specific viewpoint or behavior. Persuasion helps us make informed choices about what to eat, where to shop, and which diets to follow. It allows us to share our preferences and reinforce cultural norms. Understanding persuasive techniques enables us to critically evaluate advertising, media, and interpersonal communication, helping us to make better decisions and resist manipulation.

Rhetorical Situations

Understanding the rhetorical situation is crucial for effective communication. It involves analyzing the elements of author, purpose, audience, setting, and text. For a charitable organization like a food bank’s website, these elements work together to create a compelling message that encourages donations and volunteer support.

Take a look at the Feed My Starving Children (FMSC) website and carefully consider how it uses the components below to craft persuasive content that resonates with its audience and achieves its goals.

	Author The author is the individual or organization creating the message. For a food bank, this might be the marketing team or the director who communicates the organization’s mission and needs.	Critical Questions Who authored the content for the FMSC website? Was it a single person or a team? What experiences or credentials do you think the authors have? As you explore the text, what type of values and beliefs do the authors have?
	Purpose The purpose is the reason behind the message. A food bank’s purpose might include raising awareness about food insecurity, encouraging donations, and recruiting volunteers to support their programs.	Critical Questions What are the main purposes of the FMSC website? How can you tell? Which purposes are directly stated, and which are implied?
	Audience The audience is the group of people the message is intended to reach. For a food bank, this could include potential donors, volunteers, community members, and local businesses.	Critical Questions Who is the intended audience for the FMSC website? What values and beliefs does this audience likely have? How can you tell?
	Setting The setting refers to the context in which the message is delivered. Think about where the message is delivered. Unique geographic factors (such as climate, population, demographics, values and beliefs) can significantly influence a message. Consider how an ad for Bud Light would go over in Saudi Arabia, where alcohol is banned. For a food bank’s website, the setting includes the online platform, the current social and economic climate, and the specific events or campaigns being highlighted.	Critical Questions What is the setting for the FMSC mission? Consider the larger setting of the United States, where this website is intended to be viewed. What are some national values and beliefs that might influence how the FMSC message is delivered and received?
	Format The text is how the message is delivered, whether it’s an article, social media post, documentary, speech, podcast, etc. Of course, different formats offer distinct strengths and weaknesses. A Snapchat message can instantly reach millions of people around the world, but it can’t explore a topic as thoroughly as a documentary. The type of text plays a significant role in the message’s success.	Critical Questions Why does FMSC use a website for these messages? What kinds of audiences (think age, income, digital literacy, etc.) are going to be using this website? What are the advantages and disadvantages for using a website for their purpose?

Rhetorical Triangle

Rhetoric uses three main ingredients:

• Logos: Logos is an appeal to logic, using facts, data, and rational arguments to persuade an audience. “Over 34 million people in the United States live in poverty.”
• Pathos: Pathos is an appeal to emotion, aiming to evoke feelings that will lead the audience to accept a particular viewpoint. “No child should go to bed hungry.”
• Ethos: Ethos is an appeal to ethics, establishing the speaker’s credibility and trustworthiness to gain the audience’s confidence. “At our food bank, we believe that food is a basic human right.”

Together, logos, ethos, and pathos form the Rhetorical Triangle, which was developed by Aristotle over 2,000 years ago to help speakers and writers persuade their audiences more effectively. He believed that by balancing these three elements, one could create more compelling and credible arguments.

Example: “Did you know that over 34 million people in the United States live in poverty, including 1 in 6 children? At our food bank, we believe that food is a basic human right. By volunteering, you can make a significant difference in their lives and help build a stronger community.”

Logos

“Logos will often employ statistics, data, or other quantitative facts to demonstrate the validity of an argument. For example, an argument about the wage gap might indicate that women, on average, earn only 80% of the salary that men in comparable positions earn; this would imply a logical conclusion that our economy favors men” (Abrams). Logical appeals can use any of the following modes of analysis:

Comparison
A comparison between one aspect of poverty and food insecurity and another similar issue can help support your claim. For instance, comparing food deserts in urban areas to rural food scarcity highlights how geographic location impacts access to nutritious food. It is crucial that the comparison is fair and valid, with both situations sharing significant traits of similarity.

Cause/Effect Thinking
You argue that the lack of grocery stores in low-income neighborhoods (X) has caused higher rates of malnutrition and diet-related diseases (Y). Alternatively, you might argue that cuts in food assistance programs (X) are likely to cause increased hunger and poverty (Y) in the future. Be careful with predictions, as they can be difficult to substantiate.

Deductive Reasoning
Starting with a broad claim such as “food insecurity leads to poor health outcomes,” you can support a more specific point like “children in food-insecure households have higher rates of developmental issues,” using general knowledge to back a specific claim.

Inductive Reasoning
Using specific cases, such as multiple studies showing increased reliance on food banks, to make a general statement like “food insecurity is worsening nationwide.” This method involves moving from specific examples to a broader generalization.

Analogical Reasoning
Moving from one particular claim to another, for example, “just as lack of education perpetuates poverty, lack of access to nutritious food perpetuates health disparities.” This reasoning shows a sequential relationship between two related issues.

Exemplification
Using various examples, such as case studies, statistics, and personal testimonies. This method can also strengthen an argument by showing how a single instance can illustrate a larger issue. “Millions of Arizonan children are food insecure. For example, Andy, a third grader who lives in Mesa, relies on the school’s free lunch program. It is often the only guaranteed meal of his day.”

Elaboration
Instead of just stating a fact, like “10% of households are food insecure,” you explain its significance: “This means millions of children are at risk of developmental delays and chronic illnesses due to inadequate nutrition.”

Pathos

Pathos, or emotional appeal, aims to evoke emotions in the audience to persuade them. It involves connecting with the audience on an emotional level through stories, vivid descriptions, imagery, images, and emotional language.

Personal Stories

Personal stories involve sharing individual experiences and anecdotes that highlight the human aspect of the issue. “Mary, is a single mother who works two jobs to stay afloat. Despite her best efforts, she struggles to put food on the table. Thanks to your donations, Mary and her son now have access to healthy meals, giving them hope and strength to rebuild their lives.”

Vivid Descriptions

Vivid descriptions involve providing detailed and graphic descriptions that create a clear and impactful picture in the reader’s mind. These descriptions engage the senses and emotions, making the issue more relatable and urgent. For example, you might see the following description on a food bank’s website: “Imagine waking up every morning to the gnawing pain of hunger, knowing that today, like so many other days, there will be no breakfast to silence it. The empty shelves and bare refrigerator are constant reminders of the struggle to find your next meal.”

Imagery

Imagery involves the use of descriptive language that appeals to the senses, creating a picture in the reader’s mind. It can include visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile elements. “The soft rustling of paper bags being filled with fresh vegetables and fruits, the warmth of a hearty soup simmering on the stove, the bright smiles of children as they receive their first nutritious meal in days.”

Images

Using visual images, such as photographs or illustrations, to convey emotions and reinforce the message. Imagine a photo of a young child with a sad expression, sitting alone in a school cafeteria without any food.

Emotional Language

Emotional language uses words and phrases that evoke strong feelings, such as compassion, sadness, joy, or anger. “No child should ever experience the heart-wrenching pain of hunger. It’s a fundamental right to have access to nutritious food, and together, we can make this a reality for every family in our community.”

Ethos

Ethos is about developing trust between the speaker and audience. Audiences will evaluate speakers to determine if they are credible, and then screen messages for compatible values and beliefs. Therefore, ethos appeals to values, character, and credibility.

Values

Ethos, in the context of poverty and food insecurity, often involves appealing to societal values like justice, equality, dignity for all, and human rights. These values transcend personal emotions and resonate on a social level. For example, advocating for food equity by appealing to the value of justice can persuade an audience that ensuring everyone has access to nutritious food is a morally right action. When an author evokes these values, it creates a sense of moral “rightness” in their argument, making the audience feel that the proposed solutions align with their deeply held beliefs about what is just and fair. For example, “Ensuring that every child has access to nutritious meals is a matter of justice and equality. No child should go to bed hungry in a world where there is plenty of food.”

Character

Character involves personal history and traits that make the speaker trustworthy. An advocate who has a history of volunteering at food banks or has personally experienced food insecurity might be seen as having the character that resonates with the audience. This personal connection can make the speaker’s message more powerful and relatable. For example, “Having grown up in a food-insecure household, I know firsthand the struggles that children face when they don’t have enough to eat. This is why I am dedicated to advocating for comprehensive food assistance programs.”

Education and/or Certifications

Ethos can be generated by using one’s academic qualifications and professional certifications to establish expertise in the subject matter. An author can also accomplish this by referencing the knowledge and opinions of recognized experts. For example, “According to Dr. Jane Smith, a leading expert in childhood nutrition, consistent access to healthy meals significantly improves academic performance and overall well-being in children.”

Kairos

Kairos means “timeliness”. Think about kairos as using the right rhetorical strategy in the right time and place.

Effective rhetoric largely depends on your place in time, space, and culture. As Shane Abrams points out, different cultures value the components of argumentation differently, and argument has various purposes in various contexts. The content of your argument, and your strategies for delivering it, will shift in every unique rhetorical situation. Kairos, in its simplest definition, refers to the opportune moment for using logos, pathos, and ethos. According to rhetoricians, kairos determines the balance and application of logos, pathos, and ethos. This means that your socio-historical context enables you to make assumptions about your audience, such as their interests, values, and background knowledge, but only after carefully considering the time and place in which you are arguing. For example, imagine you are trying to fundraise for a charity. You wouldn’t use the same rhetorical appeals for a modern audience living in Scottsdale as an audience from 1850 living in Afghanistan.

When addressing issues of poverty and food insecurity, the concept of kairos becomes particularly relevant. The way you present your argument must resonate with the current socio-economic climate and cultural attitudes.

Timing and Historical Awareness

Be aware of the historical context of your argument. During an economic downturn or a pandemic, highlighting immediate action and the urgency of addressing food insecurity will be more effective. Linking your argument to current events can make your message more relatable and pressing. In this context, your logos appeal might present statistics showing the increase in food insecurity during the pandemic.

Values & Beliefs

Acknowledge current societal beliefs about the topic. For example, if you are discussing anti-poverty programs, you might acknowledge the stigma around food assistance programs. Different communities may have varying perceptions of poverty and food insecurity. Tailoring your message to reflect these cultural nuances can enhance the impact. In this context, a pathos appeal might focus on personal stories of families struggling to make ends meet, evoking empathy.

Audience Knowledge

Consider what your audience already knows and believes about the topic. Use this knowledge to build a connection and present your argument more effectively. In this context, an ethos appeal might highlight endorsements from reputable organizations and experts in social work who advocate for food assistance programs.

Misusing Rhetorical Appeals

While rhetorical appeals (logos, ethos, and pathos) are powerful tools for persuasion, misusing them can backfire and undermine your argument. Overreliance or inappropriate use of these appeals can lead to a loss of credibility and audience trust. Below are common pitfalls associated with each type of appeal:

Overusing Pathos

While emotional engagement is important, overusing pathos can make the audience feel manipulated or overwhelmed.

Excessive Emotional Stories

Using too many personal anecdotes or overly sentimental stories can make the argument seem insincere or exploitative. For instance, repeatedly showing graphic images of starving children without providing factual support can desensitize the audience and reduce the impact.

Fear-Mongering

Relying heavily on fear to persuade, such as presenting extreme worst-case scenarios without balance, can lead to panic rather than constructive action.

Overwhelming the audience with emotional content can lead to desensitization or emotional exhaustion. Similarly, I\if the audience feels manipulated, they may distrust the speaker and dismiss the argument entirely.

Misusing Ethos

Ethos is about establishing the speaker’s credibility and trustworthiness. Misusing ethos involves overstating qualifications or misrepresenting authority.

Exaggerating Credentials

Claiming expertise or experience that one does not possess can quickly be uncovered and damage credibility.

Appealing to False Authorities

Citing individuals as experts who do not have relevant qualifications or expertise.

Once the audience discovers exaggerations or misrepresentations, they may distrust not only the speaker but also the message.

Misusing Logos

Logos relies on logical arguments and evidence. Misusing logos involves presenting flawed logic, misleading statistics, or overcomplicated data.

Cherry-Picking Data

Selecting only favorable data while ignoring contradictory evidence can mislead the audience and is intellectually dishonest.

Overloading with Statistics

Bombarding the audience with excessive statistics without clear explanations can confuse rather than clarify.

An argument that is too complex or data-heavy without context can lose the audience’s attention and understanding. Or, if the audience detects selective use of data, they may question the overall validity of the argument.

Conclusion

The more you learn about rhetorical strategies, the better a communicator you will become. With the ability to master logos, ethos, pathos and kairos, you will be able to craft persuasive messages that do not just inform an audience, but move them into action. These strategies are tools for effective persuasion in life, business, marketing, advocacy work, and even in interpersonal relationships. Identifying and using these methods makes you a more critical consumer of information and a more persuasive communicator.