14 Career Development Theories Overview

“A person going nowhere can be sure of reaching his destination.  Take the first step in faith. You don’t have to see the whole staircase – just take the first step.” Martin Luther King, Jr.

Career Development Theories Overview

Career Development is a “continuous lifelong process of developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing information about self, occupational and educational alternatives, lifestyles and role options” (Hansen, 1976). Put another way, career development is the process through which people come to understand them as they relate to the world of work and their role in it.

This career development process is where an individual fashions a work identity. In America, we are what we do, thus it becomes a person’s identity. It is imperative when educating our young people that our school systems assist and consider the significance of this responsibility for our youth and their future. The influences on and outcomes of career development are one aspect of socialization as part of a broader process of human development.

Why Study Theory?

Theories and research describing career behavior provide the “conceptual glue” as well as describe where, when and for what purpose career counseling, career education, career guidance, and other career interventions should be implemented. The process of career development theory comes from four disciplines:

• Differential Psychology- interested in work and occupations
• Personality- view individuals as an organizer of their own experiences
• Sociology- focus on occupational mobility
• Developmental Psychology- concerned with the “life course”

“Theory is a picture, an image, a description, a representation of reality. It is not reality itself. It is a way we can think about some part of reality so that we can comprehend it” (Krumboltz)

Career Development Theories for the past 75 years fall into four categories:

1. Trait Factor – Matching personal traits to occupations-Frank Parson’s (1920’s)
2. Psychological – Personality types matching work environment- Holland (1980’s)
3. Decision – Situational or Sociological- Bandura ( Self Efficacy-1970’s)
4. Developmental – Self Concept over life span-Super (1950’s)

Holland Theory of Vocational Types

This approach gives explicit attention to behavioral style or personality types as the major influence in career choice development. This is described as structurally interactive. Common Themes:

• Occupation choice is an expression of personality and not random
• Members of an occupational group have similar personalities
• People in each group will respond to situations and problems similarly
• Occupational achievement, stability, and satisfaction depend on the congruence between one’s personality and job environment

6 Holland Types

• Realistic – work with hands, machines, tools, active, practical, adventurous
• High traits – practical, masculine, stable
• Low traits – sensitive, feminine, stable
• Occupations – construction, farming, architecture, truck driving, mail carrier
• Investigative – thought, analytical approaches, explore, knowledge, ideas, not social
• High traits – scholarly, intellectual, critical
• Low traits – powerful, ambitious, adventurous
• Occupations – biologist, chemist, dentist, veterinarian, programmer
• Artistic – literary, musical, artistic activities, emotional, creative, open
• High traits – expressive, creative, spontaneous
• Low traits – orderly, efficient, conventional, social, masculine
• Occupations – artist, musician, poet, interior designer, writer
• Social – train, inform, educate, help, supportive, avoid technical skills, empathy, relationships
• High traits – cooperative, friendly, humanistic
• Low traits – ambitious, creative, strong
• Occupations – social work, counseling, police officer, LPN
• Enterprising – verbally skilled, persuasive, direct, leader, dominant
• High traits – ambitious, adventurous, energetic
• Low traits – intellectual, creative, feminine
• Occupations – lawyer, business executive, politician, TV producer
• Conventional – rules and routines, provide order or direct structure, great self-control, respect power and status, punctual, orderly
• High traits – stable, efficient, dependable, controlled
• Low traits – intellectual, adventurous, creative
• Occupations – bank teller, clerk typist, cashier, data entry

Holland Type Summary for Career Exploration

The Holland Types are intuitively appealing and easily shared with you by career counselors. They help you get oriented to the world of work and aren’t overwhelming. They provide a helpful way of understanding varied work environments. However, Holland Type theory alone doesn’t provide insights into how one develops a type or guidance for working with you, the student.

Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory

The concept of self-efficacy is the focal point of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. By means of the self system, individuals exercise control over their thoughts, feelings, and actions. Among the beliefs with which an individual evaluates the control over his/her actions and environment, self-efficacy beliefs are the most influential predictor of human behavior. The level and strength of self-efficacy will determine:

• whether coping behavior will be initiated;
• how much effort will result;
• how long the effort will be sustained in the face of obstacles.

Self-Efficacy – the belief in one’s capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments- is constructed on the basis of: Four most influential sources where self-efficacy is derived:

• Personal Performance – Accomplishments-previous successes or failures (most influential)
• Vicarious Experience – Watching others, modeling, mentoring
• Verbal Persuasion – Verbal encouragement or discouragement
• Physiological and Emotional Factors – Perceptions of stress reactions in the body

Self-Efficacy plays a central role in the cognitive regulation of motivation, because people regulate the level and distribution of effort they will expend in accordance with the effects they are expecting from their actions.

It is important to understand the distinction between Self Esteem and Self Efficacy.

• Self-esteem relates to a person’s sense of self-worth.
• Self-efficacy relates to a person’s perception of their ability to reach a goal.

How Self-Efficacy Affects Human Function

Choices regarding behavior-People will be more inclined to take on a task if they believe they can succeed. People generally avoid tasks where their self-efficacy is low, but engage when it is high. Self-efficacy significantly higher than ability can lead to psychological damage. Significantly low self-efficacy leads to an inability to grow and expand skills. Optimum levels of self-efficacy are a little above ability, which encourages people to tackle challenging tasks and gain valuable experience.

Motivation– People with higher self-efficacy in a task are likely to expend more effort and persist longer than with low efficacy. On the other hand, low self-efficacy may provide an incentive to learn more and prepare better than a person with higher self-efficacy.

Thought Patterns and Responses– Low self-efficacy can lead people to believe tasks are harder than they actually are. This leads to poor planning and stress. A person with higher self-efficacy will attribute a failure to external factors, whereas a person with lower self-efficacy will attribute it to low ability. (Example: Math Test)

The Destiny Idea– Bandura successfully showed that people with differing self-efficacy perceive the world in fundamentally different ways. People with a high self-efficacy are generally of the opinion that they are in control of their own lives: that their own actions and decisions shape their lives. On the other hand, people with low self-efficacy may see their lives as somewhat out of their hands and with fate.

Efficacy vs. Outcome Expectations

Bandura distinguishes between outcome expectancy and efficacy expectancy.

Outcome expectation refers to the person’s estimate that a given behavior will lead to particular outcomes.

Efficacy expectation is an estimate that one can successfully execute the behavior required to produce the outcomes sought.

Self-beliefs about abilities play a central role in the career decision-making process. People move toward those occupations requiring capabilities they think they either have or can develop. People move away from those occupations requiring capabilities they think they do not possess or they cannot develop.

Personal goals also influence career behaviors in important ways. Personal goals relate to one’s determination to engage in certain activities to produce a particular outcome. Goals help to organize and guide behavior over long periods of time.

The relationship among goals, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations is complex and occurs within the framework of:

Bandura’s Triadic Reciprocal Model of Causality – these factors are all affecting each other simultaneously

• personal attributes,
• external environmental factors
• overt behavior

In essence, a person’s inputs (e.g. gender, race) interact with contextual factors (e.g. culture, family geography) and learning experiences to influence self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations.

Self-efficacy beliefs and outcome expectations shape people’s interests, goals, actions, and eventually attainments.

However, these are also influenced by contextual factors (e.g. job opportunities, access to training opportunities, and financial resources).

In this theory providing opportunities, experiences, and significant adults to impact self-efficacy in all children becomes vital. Strategic career development interventions will positively impact young people in the context of this theory.

Super’s Developmental Self-Concept Theory

Vocational development is the process of developing and implementing a self-concept. As the self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so do vocational choices and behavior. People choose occupations that permit them to express their self-concepts. Work satisfaction is related to the degree that they’ve been able to implement their self-concepts.

Career Maturity – Similarity between one’s actual vocational behavior and what is expected for that stage of development. Career maturity includes the readiness to cope with developmental tasks at a given stage. It is both affective and cognitive.

Most career education programs have been affected by Super’s ideas. They provide gradual exposure to self-concepts and work concepts in the curriculum that represents Super’s ideas of career development/vocational maturity. (National Career Development Guideline Standards)

Stages

Growth (Birth to mid-teens)

Major developmental tasks are to develop a self-concept and to move from play to work orientation.

Substages

• Fantasy (4-10 years old) – needs dominate career fantasies and little reality orientation.
• Interest (11-12 years old) – identifies likes/dislikes as basis for career choices
• Capacity (13-14 years old) – more reality incorporated; can relate own skills to specific requirements of jobs. (Vocationalizing the self-concept)

Exploration (Mid-teens through early 20’s)

The developmental major tasks are to develop a realistic self-concept and implement a vocational preference through role tryouts and exploration; there is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to the implementation of a preference. Preferences become CHOICES when acted upon.

Substages

• Tentative (15-17 years old) – tentative choices incorporating needs, interests, and abilities are tried out in fantasy, coursework, part-time work, volunteer, and shadowing.
  • May identify the field and level of work at this substage
• Crystallization of Preference (18-21 years old) – General preference is converted into a specific choice. Reality dominates as one enters the job market or training after high school. Choosing a college major or field of training.
• Specifying a Vocational Preference (early 20’s) – trial/little commitment; the first job is tried out as life’s work but the implemented choice is provisional and a person may cycle back through crystallizing and specifying if not appropriate.

Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s)

The major developmental tasks are to find a secure niche in one’s field and advance within it.

Substages

• Trial and Stabilization (25-30 years old) – process of settling down, if unsatisfactory may make 1-2 more changes before the right job is found.
• Advancement (30-40 years old) – efforts directed at securing one’s position, acquiring seniority, developing skills, demonstrating superior performance, and resume-building actions.

Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s)

The major development task is to preserve one’s gains and develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is broken, and one continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger workers. Could be a plateau.

Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement)

Development tasks are the deceleration of the career, gradual disengagement from the world of work, and retirement. One is challenged to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part-time to suit declining capacities.

Super’s Theory Summary for Career Exploration

• Identify the career development stage and set goals for mastery of the tasks unique to each stage.
• Helps you clarify your self-concept because any task that enhances self-knowledge will increase vocational maturity. Then help you relate your self-knowledge to occupational information.
• Expose you to a wider range of careers because occupational options narrow over time. Consider lifestyle implications and consider the vocational and avocational relevance of subjects studied in school.
• Direct work experiences are vital. Try on roles in real worlds of work.

Super’s developmental view of career development in the context of the self allows for changes over time. This is very appropriate in the 21st Century workplace.