Open Resources for Nursing (Open RN)
Now that we have reviewed the anatomy of the integumentary system and common integumentary conditions, let’s review the components of an integumentary assessment. The standard for documentation of skin assessment is within 24 hours of admission to inpatient care. Skin assessment should also be ongoing in inpatient and long-term care.[1]
A routine integumentary assessment by a registered nurse in an inpatient care setting typically includes inspecting overall skin color, inspecting for skin lesions and wounds, and palpating extremities for edema, temperature, and capillary refill.[2]
Subjective Assessment
Begin the assessment by asking focused interview questions regarding the integumentary system. Itching is the most frequent complaint related to the integumentary system. See Table 14.4a for sample interview questions.
Table 14.4a Focused Interview Questions for the Integumentary System
| Questions | Follow-up |
|---|---|
| Are you currently experiencing any skin symptoms such as itching, rashes, or an unusual mole, lump, bump, or nodule?[3] | Use the PQRSTU method to gain additional information about current symptoms. Read more about the PQRSTU method in the “Health History” chapter. |
| Have you ever been diagnosed with a condition such as acne, eczema, skin cancer, pressure injuries, jaundice, edema, or lymphedema? | Please describe. |
| Are you currently using any prescription or over-the-counter medications, creams, vitamins, or supplements to treat a skin, hair, or nail condition? | Please describe. |
Objective Assessment
There are five key areas to note during a focused integumentary assessment: color, skin temperature, moisture level, skin turgor, and any lesions or skin breakdown. Certain body areas require particular observation because they are more prone to pressure injuries, such as bony prominences, skin folds, perineum, between digits of the hands and feet, and under any medical device that can be removed during routine daily care.[4]
Inspection
Color
Inspect the color of the patient’s skin and compare findings to what is expected for their skin tone. Note a change in color such as pallor (paleness), cyanosis (blueness), jaundice (yellowness), or erythema (redness). Note if there is any bruising (ecchymosis) present.
Scalp
If the patient reports itching of the scalp, inspect the scalp for lice and/or nits.
Lesions and Skin Breakdown
Note any lesions, skin breakdown, or unusual findings, such as rashes, petechiae, unusual moles, or burns. Be aware that unusual patterns of bruising or burns can be signs of abuse that warrant further investigation and reporting according to agency policy and state regulations.
Auscultation
Auscultation does not occur during a focused integumentary exam.
Palpation
Palpation of the skin includes assessing temperature, moisture, texture, skin turgor, capillary refill, and edema. If erythema or rashes are present, it is helpful to apply pressure with a gloved finger to further assess for blanching (whitening with pressure).
Temperature, Moisture, and Texture
Fever, decreased perfusion of the extremities, and local inflammation in tissues can cause changes in skin temperature. For example, a fever can cause a patient’s skin to feel warm and sweaty (diaphoretic). Decreased perfusion of the extremities can cause the patient’s hands and feet to feel cool, whereas local tissue infection or inflammation can make the localized area feel warmer than the surrounding skin. Research has shown that experienced practitioners can palpate skin temperature accurately and detect differences as small as 1 to 2 degrees Celsius. For accurate palpation of skin temperature, do not hold anything warm or cold in your hands for several minutes prior to palpation. Use the palmar surface of your dominant hand to assess temperature.[5] While assessing skin temperature, also assess if the skin feels dry or moist and the texture of the skin. Skin that appears or feels sweaty is referred to as being diaphoretic.
Capillary Refill
The capillary refill test is a test done on the nail beds to monitor perfusion, the amount of blood flow to tissue. Pressure is applied to a fingernail or toenail until it turns white, indicating that the blood has been forced from the tissue under the nail. This whiteness is called blanching. Once the tissue has blanched, remove pressure. Capillary refill is defined as the time it takes for color to return to the tissue after pressure has been removed that caused blanching. If there is sufficient blood flow to the area, a pink color should return within 2 seconds after the pressure is removed.[6]
View the Cardiovascular Assessment Part Two | Capillary Refill Test YouTube video for a demonstration of capillary refill.[7]
Skin Turgor
Skin turgor may be included when assessing a patient’s hydration status, but research has shown it is not a good indicator. Skin turgor is the skin’s elasticity. Its ability to change shape and return to normal may be decreased when the patient is dehydrated. To check for skin turgor, gently grasp skin on the patient’s lower arm between two fingers so that it is tented upwards, and then release. Skin with normal turgor snaps rapidly back to its normal position, but skin with poor turgor takes additional time to return to its normal position.[8] Skin turgor is not a reliable method to assess for dehydration in older adults because they have decreased skin elasticity, so other assessments for dehydration should be included.[9]
Edema
If edema is present on inspection, palpate the area to determine if the edema is pitting or nonpitting. Press on the skin to assess for indentation, ideally over a bony structure, such as the tibia. If no indentation occurs, it is referred to as nonpitting edema. If indentation occurs, it is referred to as pitting edema. See Figure 14.22[10] for an image demonstrating pitting edema. If pitting edema is present, document the depth of the indention and how long it takes for the skin to rebound back to its original position. The indentation and time required to rebound to the original position are graded on a scale from 1 to 4, where 1+ indicates a barely detectable depression with immediate rebound, and 4+ indicates a deep depression with a time lapse of over 20 seconds required to rebound. See Figure 14.23[11] for an illustration of grading edema.
Life Span Considerations
Older Adults
Older adults have several changes associated with aging that are apparent during assessment of the integumentary system. They often have cardiac and circulatory system conditions that cause decreased perfusion, resulting in cool hands and feet. They have decreased elasticity and fragile skin that often tears more easily. The blood vessels of the dermis become more fragile, leading to bruising and bleeding under the skin. The subcutaneous fat layer thins, so it has less insulation and padding and reduced ability to maintain body temperature. Growths such as skin tags, rough patches (keratoses), skin cancers, and other lesions are more common. Older adults may also be less able to sense touch, pressure, vibration, heat, and cold.[12]
When completing an integumentary assessment, it is important to distinguish between expected and unexpected assessment findings. Please review Table 14.4b to review common expected and unexpected integumentary findings.
Table 14.4b Expected Versus Unexpected Findings on Integumentary Assessment
| Assessment | Expected Findings | Unexpected Findings (Document and notify provider if it is a new finding*) |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection | Skin is expected color for ethnicity without lesions or rashes. | Jaundice
Erythema Cyanosis Irregular-looking mole Bruising (ecchymosis) Rashes Petechiae Skin breakdown Burns |
| Auscultation | Not applicable | |
| Palpation | Skin is warm and dry with no edema. Capillary refill is less than 3 seconds. Skin has normal turgor with no tenting. | Diaphoretic or clammy
Cool extremity Edema Lymphedema Capillary refill greater than 3 seconds Tenting |
| *CRITICAL CONDITIONS to report immediately | Cool and clammy
Diaphoretic Petechiae Jaundice Cyanosis Redness, warmth, and tenderness indicating a possible infection |
- Medline Industries, Inc. (n.d.). Are you doing comprehensive skin assessments correctly? Get the whole picture. https://www.medline.com/skin-health/comprehensive-skin-assessments-correctly-get-whole-picture/#:~:text=A%20comprehensive%20skin%20assessment%20entails,actually%20more%20than%20skin%20deep ↵
- Giddens, J. F. (2007). A survey of physical examination techniques performed by RNs: Lessons for nursing education. Journal of Nursing Education, 46(2), 83-87. https://doi.org/10.3928/01484834-20070201-09 ↵
- McKay, M. (1990). The dermatologic history. In Walker, H. K., Hall, W. D., Hurst, J. W. (Eds.), Clinical methods: The history, physical, and laboratory examinations (3rd ed.). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK207/ ↵
- Medline Industries, Inc. (n.d.). Are you doing comprehensive skin assessments correctly? Get the whole picture. https://www.medline.com/skin-health/comprehensive-skin-assessments-correctly-get-whole-picture/#:~:text=A%20comprehensive%20skin%20assessment%20entails,actually%20more%20than%20skin%20deep ↵
- Levine, D., Walker, J. R., Marcellin-Little, D. J., Goulet, R., & Ru, H. (2018). Detection of skin temperature differences using palpation by manual physical therapists and lay individuals. The Journal of Manual & Manipulative Therapy, 26(2), 97-101. https://dx.doi.org/10.1080%2F10669817.2018.1427908 ↵
- Johannsen, L.L. (2005). Skin assessment. Dermatology Nursing, 17(2), 165-66. ↵
- Nurse Saria. (2018, September 18). Cardiovascular assessment part two | Capillary refill test [Video]. YouTube. All rights reserved. https://youtu.be/A6htMxo4Cks ↵
- A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Atlanta (GA): A.D.A.M., Inc.; c1997-2020. Skin turgor; [updated 2020, Sep 16; cited 2020, Sep 18]. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/003281.htm#:~:text=To%20check%20for%20skin%20turgor,back%20to%20its%20normal%20position ↵
- Nursing Times. (2015, August 3). Detecting dehydration in older people. https://www.nursingtimes.net/roles/older-people-nurses-roles/detecting-dehydration-in-older-people-useful-tests-03-08-2015/ ↵
- “Combinpedal.jpg” by James Heilman, MD is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 ↵
- “Grading of Edema” by Meredith Pomietlo for Chippewa Valley Technical College is licensed under CC BY 4.0 ↵
- A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia [Internet]. Atlanta (GA): A.D.A.M., Inc.; c1997-2020. Aging changes in skin; [updated 2020, Sep 16; cited 2020, Sep 18]. https://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/004014.htm#:~:text=The%20remaining%20melanocytes%20increase%20in,the%20skin's%20strength%20and%20elasticity ↵
A process where the patient and nurse seek a mutually acceptable way to deal with competing interests of nursing care, prescribed medical care, and the patient’s cultural needs.
A safe space for patients to interact with health professionals, without judgment or discrimination, where the patient is free to express their cultural beliefs, values, and identity.
Nurses access patients' veins to collect blood (i.e., perform phlebotomy) and to administer intravenous (IV) therapy. This section will describe several methods for collecting blood, as well as review the basic concepts of IV therapy.
Blood Collection
Nurses collect blood samples from patients using several methods, including venipuncture, capillary blood sampling, and blood draws from venous access devices. Blood may also be drawn from arteries by specially trained professionals for certain laboratory testing.
Venipuncture
Venipuncture involves the process of introducing a needle into a patient’s vein to collect a blood sample or insert an IV catheter. See Figure 23.1[1] for an image of venipuncture. Blood sampling with venipuncture may be initiated by nurses, phlebotomists, or other trained personnel. Venipuncture for collection of a blood sample is an important part of data collection to assess a patient’s health status. It is commonly performed to examine hematologic and immune issues such as the body’s oxygen-carrying capacity, infection, and clotting function. It is also useful for assessing metabolic and nutrition issues such as electrolyte status and kidney functioning.
Blood collection is commonly performed via venipuncture from veins in the arms or hands. The most common sites for venipuncture are the large veins located on the antecubital fossa (i.e., the inner side of the elbow). These veins are often preferred for venipuncture because their larger size increases their ability to withstand repetitive blood sampling. However, these veins are not preferred for intravenous therapy due to the mechanical obstruction that can occur in the IV catheter when the elbow joint is contracted.
To perform the skill of venipuncture, the nurse performs many similar steps that occur with IV cannulation. The process of venipuncture for blood sample collection is outlined in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Perform Venipuncture Blood Draw" checklist.
Blood Samples From Central Venous Access Devices
Blood may also be collected by nurses from a patient's existing central venous access device (CVAD). A CVAD is a type of vascular access that involves the insertion of a catheter into a large vein in the arm, neck, chest, or groin.[2]
CVADs are discussed in more detail in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Manage Central Lines" chapter that also contains the "Obtain a Blood Sample From a CVAD" checklist.
Capillary Blood Sampling
Nurses also collect small amounts of blood for testing via capillary blood sampling. Capillary blood testing occurs when blood is collected from capillaries located near the surface of the skin. Capillaries in the fingers are used for testing in adults whereas capillaries in the heels are used for infants. An example of capillary blood testing is bedside glucose testing. See Figure 23.2[3] for an image of capillary blood glucose testing.
Capillary blood testing is typically used when repetitive sampling is needed. However, not all blood tests can be performed on capillary blood, and some clinical conditions make capillary blood testing inappropriate, such as when a patient is hypotensive with limited venous return.
Review how to perform capillary blood glucose testing in the "Blood Glucose Monitoring" section of the "Specimen Collection" chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Arterial Blood Sampling
Arterial blood sampling occurs when blood is obtained via puncture into an artery by specially trained registered nurses and other health care personnel, such as respiratory therapists, physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants. Arterial blood collection is most commonly performed to assess the body’s acid-base balance in a diagnostic test called an arterial blood gas. (For more information on arterial blood gas interpretation, please review Open RN Nursing Fundamentals Chapter 15). The most common access site for arterial blood sampling is the radial artery. See Figure 23.3[4] for an image of arterial blood sampling. Arterial blood tests are known to be more painful for the patient than venipuncture and have a higher risk of complications such as bleeding and arterial occlusion with subsequent ischemia to the area distal to the puncture.
Arterial Lines
For patients who require repetitive arterial blood sampling or are hemodynamically unstable, an arterial line may be inserted by specially trained personnel. Arterial lines are specialized tubes that are inserted and maintained in an artery to assist with continuous blood pressure monitoring. They also allow for repeated blood sampling without repetitive puncture, thus decreasing the amount of discomfort for the patient. The radial artery is the most common site used for arterial lines. Nurses must not confuse arterial lines with peripheral or central vein access devices. Arterial lines can be distinguished from venous lines by their specialized pressure tubing, which is firm and non-pliable and is connected to a pressure bag to maintain constant pressurized fluid in the tubing. Medications, fluid boluses, and maintenance IV fluids must never be infused through an arterial line. See Figure 23.3[5] for an image of arterial lines. The condition of the arterial access site, as well as perfusion of the patient's hand, is continually monitored when an arterial line is in place to prevent complications.
Intravenous Therapy
In addition to collecting blood samples, nurses also access patients' veins to administer intravenous therapy.Intravenous therapy (IV therapy) involves the administration of substances such as fluids, electrolytes, blood products, nutrition, or medications directly into a patient's vein. The intravenous route is preferred to administer fluids and medications when rapid onset of the medication or fluid is needed. The direct administration of medication into the bloodstream allows for a more rapid onset of medication actions, restoration of hydration, and correction of nutritional deficits. IV therapy is often used to restore fluids and/or resolve electrolyte imbalances more efficiently than what would be achieved via the oral route.
Fluid Balance
Fluid balance is an important part of optimal cellular functioning, and administration of fluids via the venous system provides an efficient way to quickly correct fluid imbalances. Additionally, many individuals who are physically unwell may not be able to tolerate fluids administered through their gastrointestinal tract, so IV administration is necessary. When administering IV therapy, the nurse needs to understand the nature of the solution being administered and how it will affect the patient's condition.
When patients experience deficient fluid volume, intravenous (IV) fluids are often used to restore fluid to the intravascular compartment or to facilitate the movement of fluid between compartments through the process of osmosis. There are three types of IV fluids: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic.[6]
Review movement of fluid between compartments of the body in the "Basic Fluid and Electrolyte Concepts" section of the "Fluids and Electrolytes" chapter in Open RN Nursing Fundamentals.
Isotonic Solutions
Isotonic solutions are IV fluids that have a similar concentration of dissolved particles as found in the blood. Examples of isotonic IV solutions are 0.9% normal saline (0.9% NaCl) or lactated ringers (LR). Because the concentration of isotonic IV fluid is similar to the concentration of blood, the fluid stays in the intravascular space, and osmosis does not cause fluid movement between cells. See Figure 23.4[7] for an illustration of isotonic IV solution administration that does not cause osmotic movement of fluid.
Isotonic solutions are used to treat fluid volume deficit (also called hypovolemia) to replace extracellular fluid that has been lost due to bleeding, dehydration, shock, burns, trauma, and gastrointestinal tract fluid loss (such as diarrhea). IV therapy with isotonic fluids will increase a patient's blood pressure. However, infusion of too much isotonic fluid can cause excessive fluid volume (also referred to as hypervolemia) and must be used with caution in patients with hypertension, heart failure, and renal disease due to the potential for fluid overload.[8]
Hypotonic Solutions
Hypotonic solutions have a lower concentration of dissolved solutes than blood. An example of a hypotonic IV solution is 0.45% normal saline (0.45% NaCl). Another example of hypotonic fluid is dextrose 5% in water (D5W). D5W is isotonic in the bag but becomes hypotonic after the dextrose is rapidly metabolized by the body.
When hypotonic IV solutions are infused, it results in a decreased concentration of dissolved solutes in the blood as compared to the intracellular space. This imbalance causes osmotic movement of water from the intravascular compartment into the intracellular space. For this reason, hypotonic fluids are used to treat cellular dehydration. See Figure 23.5[9] for an illustration of the osmotic movement of fluid into a cell when a hypotonic IV solution is administered, causing lower concentration of solutes (pink molecules) in the bloodstream compared to within the cell.[10]
Hypotonic solutions are used for patients whose cells have become dehydrated, such as during diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperosmolar hyperglycemia, and fluids must be pushed back into the cells. However, if too much fluid moves out of the intravascular compartment into the cells, cerebral edema, worsening hypovolemia, and hypotension can occur. Therefore, patient status should be monitored carefully when hypotonic solutions are infused.[11]
Hypertonic Solutions
Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of dissolved particles than blood. An example of hypertonic IV solution is 3% normal saline (3% NaCl). When infused, hypertonic fluids cause an increased concentration of dissolved solutes in the intravascular space compared to the cells. This causes the osmotic movement of water out of the cells and into the intravascular space to dilute the solutes in the blood. See Figure 23.6[12] for an illustration of osmotic movement of fluid out of a cell when hypertonic IV fluid is administered due to a higher concentration of solutes (pink molecules) in the bloodstream compared to the cell.
Hypertonic solutions move water out of the cells of the body and into the bloodstream. They are commonly used for patients with cerebral edema, severe hyponatremia, or some types of post-op patients. Hypertonic solutions must be used very cautiously due to potentially rapid side effects of fluid overload resulting in pulmonary edema, so they are typically administered in intensive care units (ICU). Hypertonic fluids should not be administered to patients with DKA because it will worsen their cellular dehydration.
When administering hypertonic fluids, it is essential to monitor for signs of fluid overload, such as significantly elevated blood pressure and difficulties breathing. Additionally, if hypertonic solutions with sodium are given, the patient's serum sodium level should be closely monitored.[13]
See Figure 23.7[14] for an illustration comparing how different types of IV solutions affect red blood cell size.
IV fluids are considered medications. As with all medications, nurses must check the rights of medication administration according to agency policy before administering IV fluids. What began as five rights of medication administration has been extended to eight rights according to the American Nurses Association. These eight rights include the following[15]:
- Right Patient
- Right Medication
- Right Dose
- Right Time
- Right Route
- Right Documentation
- Right Reason
- Right Response
Nurses also check for patient allergies, expiration date of the fluid, and compatibility of the fluid with any other fluids, medications, or blood products being administered intravenously. With any IV infusion, it is important for the nurse to pay close attention to the provider's order and make sure that it contains the specific type of fluid, any additives or medications, amount to be infused, rate of infusion, and the length of time that the therapy should continue. The nurse should also carefully assess a patient's hydration status and oral intake to ensure that IV fluids are stopped appropriately as a patent's condition changes. For example, weight should be assessed daily for patients receiving IV fluids to monitor for fluid overload.
Review how to check the rights of medication administration in the “Administration of Enteral Medications” chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Electrolyte Imbalance
In addition to rapidly improving hydration status, IV fluids may also be administered to rapidly correct electrolyte imbalances. Infusing fluids with electrolytes such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium can correct electrolyte imbalances more rapidly and effectively than by oral supplementation. However, nurses must collaborate with the interprofessional team to identify medications that should and should not be given through peripheral veins. Current standards of care consider continuous peripheral infusion therapy of electrolytes to be inappropriate because of potential vascular endothelial damage. Ideally, peripheral IV therapy should be isotonic and consistent with physiological pH; otherwise, central venous access should be used.[16]
Electrolytes administered via the IV route must always be administered cautiously at the correct infusion rate because over supplementation can be deadly. For example, potassium infusions administered too rapidly into a patient's system can cause sudden cardiac arrest.
Blood Administration
Blood and blood components are administered by registered nurses via IV infusion, typically through larger sized IV catheters. Blood and blood components are transfused through a special transfusion administration set that has a filter designed to retain potentially harmful particles. Specific procedures for verifying the correct patient and correct blood product are performed prior to transfusion to prevent transfusion reactions that can be life-threatening. Administration of blood and blood components, including the use of infusion devices and ancillary equipment, and the identification, evaluation, and reporting of adverse events related to transfusion are established in agency policies, procedures, and/or practice guidelines. Read more information about blood administration in the "Administer Blood Products" chapter in Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
Nutrition
Nutritional therapy can be administered through an intravenous route for patients who do not have an adequately functioning gastrointestinal tract and/or are unable to take in food or fluids appropriately. Peripheral nutrition may be ordered through a peripheral IV site for nutritional needs such as albumin replacement.
Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) may be ordered for a patient based on their specific electrolyte and/or nutritional needs. TPN is a very concentrated solution that must be administered via a central line. Central lines are placed in a larger vessel rather than a smaller, peripheral vessel. Accessing a central vessel requires additional training and expertise to prevent complications with insertion and is further discussed in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Manage Central Lines” chapter. If a nurse receives an order for TPN therapy for a patient who does not have central line access, the order should be clarified with the prescribing provider.
Medications
The IV route is preferred for the administration of many medications when immediate onset is required. For example, many types of pain medications can be given directly into the bloodstream with a much more rapid onset of action than if they were to be administered orally. Rapid relief of pain can be achieved in minutes rather than hours required for oral medications to reach their peak. Rapid onset can also be achieved with other medications such as those used to treat cardiac emergencies or severe allergic reactions to quickly restore patients to optimal body functioning. Additional information about IV administration of medications is discussed in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Administer IV Push Medications” chapter.
IV Administration Equipment
Intravenous (IV) substances are administered through flexible plastic tubing called an IV administration set. The IV administration set connects the bag of solution to the patient’s IV access site. There are two major types of IV administration sets: primary administration sets and secondary administration sets. Administration sets require routine replacement to prevent infection. Follow agency policy regarding tubing changes before initiating a new bag of fluid or medications. See a summary of general guidelines for IV therapy and administration equipment in the box at the end of this section.
Primary Administration Sets
Primary administration sets can be used to infuse continuous or intermittent fluids, electrolytes, or medications. These substances may be administered by infusion pump or by gravity, and each method requires its own type of administration set.
Primary fluids are typically administered using an IV pump. An IV pump is the safest method of administration to ensure specific amounts of fluid are administered. The rate of infusion through an IV pump is typically calculated in mL/hour.
For infusion by gravity, a primary IV administration set can be a macro-drip or a micro-drip solution set. Macro-drip sets are used for routine primary infusions for adults. Micro-drip IV tubing is used in pediatric or neonatal care where small amounts of fluids are administered over a long period of time. A macro-drip infusion set delivers fluid at 10, 15, or 20 drops per milliliter, whereas a micro-drip infusion set delivers 60 drops per milliliter. The drop factor is located on the packaging of the IV tubing and is important to verify when calculating medication administration rates.
Primary IV administration sets consist of the following parts:
- Sterile spike: Used to spike the IV fluid bag and must be kept sterile.
- Roller clamp: Used to regulate the speed or stop an infusion by gravity.
- Drip chamber: Allows air to rise out from a fluid so that it is not passed onto the patient. The drip chamber should be kept ¼ to ½ full of solution. When setting a rate by gravity to "drops per minute," the dripping from this chamber is counted.
- Backcheck valve: Prevents fluid or medication from travelling up into the primary IV bag.
- Access ports: Used to infuse secondary medications and to administer IV push medications. These may also be referred to as “Y ports.”
Secondary Administration Sets
Secondary IV administration sets are used to intermittently administer a secondary medication, such as an antibiotic, while the primary IV is also running. Secondary IV tubing is shorter in length than primary tubing and is connected to a primary line via an access port above the infusion pump. The infusion pump is then set at the prescribed secondary infusion rate while the secondary medication is administered. By hanging the secondary medication bag higher than the primary bag, gravity pulls fluid from the secondary bag until it is empty rather than the primary bag.
Secondary medications may be “piggybacked” into primary infusion lines so the solution from the primary fluid line can be used to prime the secondary tubing. To prime the secondary tubing, after the secondary tubing is connected to the primary tubing, the bag connected to the secondary tubing is held lower than the primary bag, causing fluid from the primary tubing to backflow up the secondary tubing. This eliminates air from the secondary tubing.
See Figure 23.8[17] for an illustration of the setup of primary and secondary administration sets for primary administration of fluids and secondary administration of medication by gravity. See Figure 23.9[18] for an image of an IV infusion pump.
Priming IV Tubing
Primary administration sets, secondary administration sets, and extension tubing must be primed with IV solution to prevent air from entering the patient's circulatory system and causing an air embolism. Priming refers to the process of filling the IV tubing with IV solution prior to attaching it to the patient. Review steps for setting up and priming primary and secondary administration sets using the information in the following box.
Review checklists of steps for "Primary IV Solution Administration" and "Secondary IV Solution Administration" in the "IV Therapy Management" chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Infection Control
Aseptic technique must be maintained throughout all IV therapy procedures, including initiation of IV access, preparing and maintaining IV equipment, administering IV fluids and medications, and discontinuing an IV system. Hand hygiene and strict aseptic technique must be performed when handling all IV equipment. These standards can be reviewed in the “Aseptic Technique” chapter. Additionally, if an IV catheter or IV administration set should become contaminated by contact with a nonsterile surface, it should be replaced with a new one to prevent introducing bacteria or other contaminants into the system.
Types of Venous Access
There are several types of venous access devices used to administer IV therapy that are categorized as peripheral devices or central devices. Venous access device selection is tailored to each patient's needs and to the type, duration, and frequency of infusion.
Peripheral Devices
Peripheral venous access devices are commonly used for short-term IV therapy in the hospital setting. A peripheral IV is an intravenous catheter inserted by percutaneous venipuncture into a peripheral vein and held in place with a sterile transparent dressing. The transparent dressing helps to keep the site sterile, prevents accidental dislodgement, and allows the nurse to visualize the insertion site through the dressing. A securement device may be added to prevent accidental dislodgement.
The patient’s upper extremities (hands and arms) are the preferred sites for insertion. However, a potential limitation of using the hand veins is they are smaller than the cephalic, basilic, or brachial veins in the arm. If the patient requires rapid infusions where a larger gauge IV is warranted, the larger veins in the upper arm should be considered.
Peripheral IVs are used for short-term infusions of fluids, medications, or blood. Peripheral IVs are easy to monitor and can be inserted at the bedside by nurses and other trained professionals. After IV access has been obtained, the hub of an intravenous catheter is attached to a short extension set or a primary IV administration set. Luer lock connectors on the extension tubing and/or administration sets permit syringes to be attached to administer medications or fluid flushes.
Saline lock refers to the use of a short extension set that allows IV access without requiring ongoing IV infusions. When not in use, the lock is flushed with saline according to agency policy and clamped to ensure the site remains sterile and blood does not flow out of the extension tubing. See Figure 23.10[19] for an image of a saline lock.
If the patient requires continuous infusion of IV fluids, the extension tubing from the IV catheter is connected to a primary IV administration set. The IV tubing can be run through an infusion pump to administer fluids or medications at a programmed rate of infusion (typically calculated in mL/hour) or via gravity by setting a drip rate with the roller clamp (typically calculated at drops/minute). Manufacturers list the drop rate on the IV packaging. Because of the risk of error that can occur with infusion by gravity, many agencies require the use of an infusion pump to ensure correct flow rate.
Contraindications to Peripheral IV Access Sites
Before inserting a peripheral IV, the patient should be assessed for contraindications related to insertion sites in the upper extremities. For example, patients who have a history of lumpectomy or mastectomy, an arteriovenous fistula, or current lymphedema often have restrictions that prohibit venipuncture into the affected extremity.[20] Additionally, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), fractures, contractures, or extensive scarring may also prohibit the placement of a peripheral IV. Hospitalized patients may have signage or a bracelet stating "limb alert" to alert heath care professionals to these conditions.
Midline Peripheral Catheters
Midline peripheral catheters have a larger catheter (i.e., 16-18 gauge) that allows for rapid infusions. Insertion is ultrasound-guided and can be inserted by RNs with additional training or other trained professionals. Midline catheters are typically inserted into the basilic, cephalic, or brachial veins of the upper arm with the tip placed near the level of the axilla. They are much longer and inserted deeper than a peripheral IV, but do not extend into a central vessel, so they are not considered a central line. Therefore, they have a lower risk of infection than central venous access. Any medication that can be administered through a peripheral line can be administered via a midline peripheral catheter. They can also be used for longer duration than traditional peripheral venous access, which is ideal for patients needing extended hospital stays or IV access. Based on agency policy, midline catheters may also be used for blood sample collection, thus limiting the number of venipunctures a patient receives. Site care for a midline peripheral catheter is similar to a peripheral IV dressing change.[21],[22]
Central Venous Access Devices
A central venous access device (CVAD) is a type of vascular access established by specially trained registered nurses and other health care personnel. It involves the insertion of a tube into a vein in the neck, chest, or groin and threaded into a central vein (most commonly the internal jugular, subclavian, or femoral) and advanced until the tip of the catheter resides within the inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, or right atrium.[23] Only specially trained health professionals may insert central venous access devices, but nurses provide routine care of CVADs, including dressing changes. See Figure 23.11[24] for an image of a central line requiring a dressing change.
A central venous access device can be left in for longer periods of time and is useful for administering concentrated medications and fluids, such as TPN or hyperosmotic fluids, that would be otherwise irritating to smaller peripheral veins. However, central venous access devices have an increased risk for the development of bloodstream infections, so strict sterile technique is required during insertion, and aseptic technique is used for maintenance. Central venous access devices are further discussed in the "Manage Central Lines" chapter of Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
Peripheral Inserted Central Catheters
A peripheral inserted central catheter (PICC) is a thin, flexible tube inserted into a vein in the upper arm and guided into the superior vena cava. It is used to give intravenous fluids, blood transfusions, chemotherapy, and other medications requiring a central line. It can also be used for blood sampling. A PICC may stay in place for weeks or months and helps avoid the need for repeated needlesticks. PICC lines are further discussed in the "Manage Central Lines" chapter of Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
General Guidelines for IV Therapy
The following are general guidelines for peripheral IV therapy[25]:
- IV fluid therapy is ordered by a provider. The order must include the type of solution or medication, total amount of fluid, rate of infusion, duration, date, and time.
- IV therapy is an invasive procedure. Significant complications can occur if the wrong amount of IV fluids or incorrect medication is given or if aseptic technique is not strictly followed.
- Nurses must understand the indications and duration for IV therapy for each patient. Practice guidelines recommend that patients receiving IV therapy for more than six days should be assessed for an intermediate or long-term device such as a central venous access device (CVAD).
- Hospitalized patients may have an order for a small hourly infusion rate, such as 10-20 mL/hour, historically referred to in practice as a "to keep open" (TKO) or "keep vein open" (KVO) rate.
- IV administration sets require routine replacement to promote patient safety and reduce the risk of infection. Primary and secondary continuous administration sets used to administer solutions other than lipids, blood, or blood products are typically changed every 96 hours, or up to every 7 days, as directed by agency policy and/or the manufacturer’s instructions. Administration sets should also be changed if contamination or compromise in the integrity of the product or system is suspected. Secondary administration sets that are detached from a primary administration set are typically changed every 24 hours or as directed by agency policy. Administration sets should be labelled according to agency policy with the date of initiation or the date of change indicated.[26]
Nurses access patients' veins to collect blood (i.e., perform phlebotomy) and to administer intravenous (IV) therapy. This section will describe several methods for collecting blood, as well as review the basic concepts of IV therapy.
Blood Collection
Nurses collect blood samples from patients using several methods, including venipuncture, capillary blood sampling, and blood draws from venous access devices. Blood may also be drawn from arteries by specially trained professionals for certain laboratory testing.
Venipuncture
Venipuncture involves the process of introducing a needle into a patient’s vein to collect a blood sample or insert an IV catheter. See Figure 23.1[27] for an image of venipuncture. Blood sampling with venipuncture may be initiated by nurses, phlebotomists, or other trained personnel. Venipuncture for collection of a blood sample is an important part of data collection to assess a patient’s health status. It is commonly performed to examine hematologic and immune issues such as the body’s oxygen-carrying capacity, infection, and clotting function. It is also useful for assessing metabolic and nutrition issues such as electrolyte status and kidney functioning.
Blood collection is commonly performed via venipuncture from veins in the arms or hands. The most common sites for venipuncture are the large veins located on the antecubital fossa (i.e., the inner side of the elbow). These veins are often preferred for venipuncture because their larger size increases their ability to withstand repetitive blood sampling. However, these veins are not preferred for intravenous therapy due to the mechanical obstruction that can occur in the IV catheter when the elbow joint is contracted.
To perform the skill of venipuncture, the nurse performs many similar steps that occur with IV cannulation. The process of venipuncture for blood sample collection is outlined in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Perform Venipuncture Blood Draw" checklist.
Blood Samples From Central Venous Access Devices
Blood may also be collected by nurses from a patient's existing central venous access device (CVAD). A CVAD is a type of vascular access that involves the insertion of a catheter into a large vein in the arm, neck, chest, or groin.[28]
CVADs are discussed in more detail in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Manage Central Lines" chapter that also contains the "Obtain a Blood Sample From a CVAD" checklist.
Capillary Blood Sampling
Nurses also collect small amounts of blood for testing via capillary blood sampling. Capillary blood testing occurs when blood is collected from capillaries located near the surface of the skin. Capillaries in the fingers are used for testing in adults whereas capillaries in the heels are used for infants. An example of capillary blood testing is bedside glucose testing. See Figure 23.2[29] for an image of capillary blood glucose testing.
Capillary blood testing is typically used when repetitive sampling is needed. However, not all blood tests can be performed on capillary blood, and some clinical conditions make capillary blood testing inappropriate, such as when a patient is hypotensive with limited venous return.
Review how to perform capillary blood glucose testing in the "Blood Glucose Monitoring" section of the "Specimen Collection" chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Arterial Blood Sampling
Arterial blood sampling occurs when blood is obtained via puncture into an artery by specially trained registered nurses and other health care personnel, such as respiratory therapists, physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants. Arterial blood collection is most commonly performed to assess the body’s acid-base balance in a diagnostic test called an arterial blood gas. (For more information on arterial blood gas interpretation, please review Open RN Nursing Fundamentals Chapter 15). The most common access site for arterial blood sampling is the radial artery. See Figure 23.3[30] for an image of arterial blood sampling. Arterial blood tests are known to be more painful for the patient than venipuncture and have a higher risk of complications such as bleeding and arterial occlusion with subsequent ischemia to the area distal to the puncture.
Arterial Lines
For patients who require repetitive arterial blood sampling or are hemodynamically unstable, an arterial line may be inserted by specially trained personnel. Arterial lines are specialized tubes that are inserted and maintained in an artery to assist with continuous blood pressure monitoring. They also allow for repeated blood sampling without repetitive puncture, thus decreasing the amount of discomfort for the patient. The radial artery is the most common site used for arterial lines. Nurses must not confuse arterial lines with peripheral or central vein access devices. Arterial lines can be distinguished from venous lines by their specialized pressure tubing, which is firm and non-pliable and is connected to a pressure bag to maintain constant pressurized fluid in the tubing. Medications, fluid boluses, and maintenance IV fluids must never be infused through an arterial line. See Figure 23.3[31] for an image of arterial lines. The condition of the arterial access site, as well as perfusion of the patient's hand, is continually monitored when an arterial line is in place to prevent complications.
Intravenous Therapy
In addition to collecting blood samples, nurses also access patients' veins to administer intravenous therapy.Intravenous therapy (IV therapy) involves the administration of substances such as fluids, electrolytes, blood products, nutrition, or medications directly into a patient's vein. The intravenous route is preferred to administer fluids and medications when rapid onset of the medication or fluid is needed. The direct administration of medication into the bloodstream allows for a more rapid onset of medication actions, restoration of hydration, and correction of nutritional deficits. IV therapy is often used to restore fluids and/or resolve electrolyte imbalances more efficiently than what would be achieved via the oral route.
Fluid Balance
Fluid balance is an important part of optimal cellular functioning, and administration of fluids via the venous system provides an efficient way to quickly correct fluid imbalances. Additionally, many individuals who are physically unwell may not be able to tolerate fluids administered through their gastrointestinal tract, so IV administration is necessary. When administering IV therapy, the nurse needs to understand the nature of the solution being administered and how it will affect the patient's condition.
When patients experience deficient fluid volume, intravenous (IV) fluids are often used to restore fluid to the intravascular compartment or to facilitate the movement of fluid between compartments through the process of osmosis. There are three types of IV fluids: isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic.[32]
Review movement of fluid between compartments of the body in the "Basic Fluid and Electrolyte Concepts" section of the "Fluids and Electrolytes" chapter in Open RN Nursing Fundamentals.
Isotonic Solutions
Isotonic solutions are IV fluids that have a similar concentration of dissolved particles as found in the blood. Examples of isotonic IV solutions are 0.9% normal saline (0.9% NaCl) or lactated ringers (LR). Because the concentration of isotonic IV fluid is similar to the concentration of blood, the fluid stays in the intravascular space, and osmosis does not cause fluid movement between cells. See Figure 23.4[33] for an illustration of isotonic IV solution administration that does not cause osmotic movement of fluid.
Isotonic solutions are used to treat fluid volume deficit (also called hypovolemia) to replace extracellular fluid that has been lost due to bleeding, dehydration, shock, burns, trauma, and gastrointestinal tract fluid loss (such as diarrhea). IV therapy with isotonic fluids will increase a patient's blood pressure. However, infusion of too much isotonic fluid can cause excessive fluid volume (also referred to as hypervolemia) and must be used with caution in patients with hypertension, heart failure, and renal disease due to the potential for fluid overload.[34]
Hypotonic Solutions
Hypotonic solutions have a lower concentration of dissolved solutes than blood. An example of a hypotonic IV solution is 0.45% normal saline (0.45% NaCl). Another example of hypotonic fluid is dextrose 5% in water (D5W). D5W is isotonic in the bag but becomes hypotonic after the dextrose is rapidly metabolized by the body.
When hypotonic IV solutions are infused, it results in a decreased concentration of dissolved solutes in the blood as compared to the intracellular space. This imbalance causes osmotic movement of water from the intravascular compartment into the intracellular space. For this reason, hypotonic fluids are used to treat cellular dehydration. See Figure 23.5[35] for an illustration of the osmotic movement of fluid into a cell when a hypotonic IV solution is administered, causing lower concentration of solutes (pink molecules) in the bloodstream compared to within the cell.[36]
Hypotonic solutions are used for patients whose cells have become dehydrated, such as during diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) or hyperosmolar hyperglycemia, and fluids must be pushed back into the cells. However, if too much fluid moves out of the intravascular compartment into the cells, cerebral edema, worsening hypovolemia, and hypotension can occur. Therefore, patient status should be monitored carefully when hypotonic solutions are infused.[37]
Hypertonic Solutions
Hypertonic solutions have a higher concentration of dissolved particles than blood. An example of hypertonic IV solution is 3% normal saline (3% NaCl). When infused, hypertonic fluids cause an increased concentration of dissolved solutes in the intravascular space compared to the cells. This causes the osmotic movement of water out of the cells and into the intravascular space to dilute the solutes in the blood. See Figure 23.6[38] for an illustration of osmotic movement of fluid out of a cell when hypertonic IV fluid is administered due to a higher concentration of solutes (pink molecules) in the bloodstream compared to the cell.
Hypertonic solutions move water out of the cells of the body and into the bloodstream. They are commonly used for patients with cerebral edema, severe hyponatremia, or some types of post-op patients. Hypertonic solutions must be used very cautiously due to potentially rapid side effects of fluid overload resulting in pulmonary edema, so they are typically administered in intensive care units (ICU). Hypertonic fluids should not be administered to patients with DKA because it will worsen their cellular dehydration.
When administering hypertonic fluids, it is essential to monitor for signs of fluid overload, such as significantly elevated blood pressure and difficulties breathing. Additionally, if hypertonic solutions with sodium are given, the patient's serum sodium level should be closely monitored.[39]
See Figure 23.7[40] for an illustration comparing how different types of IV solutions affect red blood cell size.
IV fluids are considered medications. As with all medications, nurses must check the rights of medication administration according to agency policy before administering IV fluids. What began as five rights of medication administration has been extended to eight rights according to the American Nurses Association. These eight rights include the following[41]:
- Right Patient
- Right Medication
- Right Dose
- Right Time
- Right Route
- Right Documentation
- Right Reason
- Right Response
Nurses also check for patient allergies, expiration date of the fluid, and compatibility of the fluid with any other fluids, medications, or blood products being administered intravenously. With any IV infusion, it is important for the nurse to pay close attention to the provider's order and make sure that it contains the specific type of fluid, any additives or medications, amount to be infused, rate of infusion, and the length of time that the therapy should continue. The nurse should also carefully assess a patient's hydration status and oral intake to ensure that IV fluids are stopped appropriately as a patent's condition changes. For example, weight should be assessed daily for patients receiving IV fluids to monitor for fluid overload.
Review how to check the rights of medication administration in the “Administration of Enteral Medications” chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Electrolyte Imbalance
In addition to rapidly improving hydration status, IV fluids may also be administered to rapidly correct electrolyte imbalances. Infusing fluids with electrolytes such as potassium, calcium, and magnesium can correct electrolyte imbalances more rapidly and effectively than by oral supplementation. However, nurses must collaborate with the interprofessional team to identify medications that should and should not be given through peripheral veins. Current standards of care consider continuous peripheral infusion therapy of electrolytes to be inappropriate because of potential vascular endothelial damage. Ideally, peripheral IV therapy should be isotonic and consistent with physiological pH; otherwise, central venous access should be used.[42]
Electrolytes administered via the IV route must always be administered cautiously at the correct infusion rate because over supplementation can be deadly. For example, potassium infusions administered too rapidly into a patient's system can cause sudden cardiac arrest.
Blood Administration
Blood and blood components are administered by registered nurses via IV infusion, typically through larger sized IV catheters. Blood and blood components are transfused through a special transfusion administration set that has a filter designed to retain potentially harmful particles. Specific procedures for verifying the correct patient and correct blood product are performed prior to transfusion to prevent transfusion reactions that can be life-threatening. Administration of blood and blood components, including the use of infusion devices and ancillary equipment, and the identification, evaluation, and reporting of adverse events related to transfusion are established in agency policies, procedures, and/or practice guidelines. Read more information about blood administration in the "Administer Blood Products" chapter in Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
Nutrition
Nutritional therapy can be administered through an intravenous route for patients who do not have an adequately functioning gastrointestinal tract and/or are unable to take in food or fluids appropriately. Peripheral nutrition may be ordered through a peripheral IV site for nutritional needs such as albumin replacement.
Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) may be ordered for a patient based on their specific electrolyte and/or nutritional needs. TPN is a very concentrated solution that must be administered via a central line. Central lines are placed in a larger vessel rather than a smaller, peripheral vessel. Accessing a central vessel requires additional training and expertise to prevent complications with insertion and is further discussed in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Manage Central Lines” chapter. If a nurse receives an order for TPN therapy for a patient who does not have central line access, the order should be clarified with the prescribing provider.
Medications
The IV route is preferred for the administration of many medications when immediate onset is required. For example, many types of pain medications can be given directly into the bloodstream with a much more rapid onset of action than if they were to be administered orally. Rapid relief of pain can be achieved in minutes rather than hours required for oral medications to reach their peak. Rapid onset can also be achieved with other medications such as those used to treat cardiac emergencies or severe allergic reactions to quickly restore patients to optimal body functioning. Additional information about IV administration of medications is discussed in the Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills "Administer IV Push Medications” chapter.
IV Administration Equipment
Intravenous (IV) substances are administered through flexible plastic tubing called an IV administration set. The IV administration set connects the bag of solution to the patient’s IV access site. There are two major types of IV administration sets: primary administration sets and secondary administration sets. Administration sets require routine replacement to prevent infection. Follow agency policy regarding tubing changes before initiating a new bag of fluid or medications. See a summary of general guidelines for IV therapy and administration equipment in the box at the end of this section.
Primary Administration Sets
Primary administration sets can be used to infuse continuous or intermittent fluids, electrolytes, or medications. These substances may be administered by infusion pump or by gravity, and each method requires its own type of administration set.
Primary fluids are typically administered using an IV pump. An IV pump is the safest method of administration to ensure specific amounts of fluid are administered. The rate of infusion through an IV pump is typically calculated in mL/hour.
For infusion by gravity, a primary IV administration set can be a macro-drip or a micro-drip solution set. Macro-drip sets are used for routine primary infusions for adults. Micro-drip IV tubing is used in pediatric or neonatal care where small amounts of fluids are administered over a long period of time. A macro-drip infusion set delivers fluid at 10, 15, or 20 drops per milliliter, whereas a micro-drip infusion set delivers 60 drops per milliliter. The drop factor is located on the packaging of the IV tubing and is important to verify when calculating medication administration rates.
Primary IV administration sets consist of the following parts:
- Sterile spike: Used to spike the IV fluid bag and must be kept sterile.
- Roller clamp: Used to regulate the speed or stop an infusion by gravity.
- Drip chamber: Allows air to rise out from a fluid so that it is not passed onto the patient. The drip chamber should be kept ¼ to ½ full of solution. When setting a rate by gravity to "drops per minute," the dripping from this chamber is counted.
- Backcheck valve: Prevents fluid or medication from travelling up into the primary IV bag.
- Access ports: Used to infuse secondary medications and to administer IV push medications. These may also be referred to as “Y ports.”
Secondary Administration Sets
Secondary IV administration sets are used to intermittently administer a secondary medication, such as an antibiotic, while the primary IV is also running. Secondary IV tubing is shorter in length than primary tubing and is connected to a primary line via an access port above the infusion pump. The infusion pump is then set at the prescribed secondary infusion rate while the secondary medication is administered. By hanging the secondary medication bag higher than the primary bag, gravity pulls fluid from the secondary bag until it is empty rather than the primary bag.
Secondary medications may be “piggybacked” into primary infusion lines so the solution from the primary fluid line can be used to prime the secondary tubing. To prime the secondary tubing, after the secondary tubing is connected to the primary tubing, the bag connected to the secondary tubing is held lower than the primary bag, causing fluid from the primary tubing to backflow up the secondary tubing. This eliminates air from the secondary tubing.
See Figure 23.8[43] for an illustration of the setup of primary and secondary administration sets for primary administration of fluids and secondary administration of medication by gravity. See Figure 23.9[44] for an image of an IV infusion pump.
Priming IV Tubing
Primary administration sets, secondary administration sets, and extension tubing must be primed with IV solution to prevent air from entering the patient's circulatory system and causing an air embolism. Priming refers to the process of filling the IV tubing with IV solution prior to attaching it to the patient. Review steps for setting up and priming primary and secondary administration sets using the information in the following box.
Review checklists of steps for "Primary IV Solution Administration" and "Secondary IV Solution Administration" in the "IV Therapy Management" chapter of Open RN Nursing Skills.
Infection Control
Aseptic technique must be maintained throughout all IV therapy procedures, including initiation of IV access, preparing and maintaining IV equipment, administering IV fluids and medications, and discontinuing an IV system. Hand hygiene and strict aseptic technique must be performed when handling all IV equipment. These standards can be reviewed in the “Aseptic Technique” chapter. Additionally, if an IV catheter or IV administration set should become contaminated by contact with a nonsterile surface, it should be replaced with a new one to prevent introducing bacteria or other contaminants into the system.
Types of Venous Access
There are several types of venous access devices used to administer IV therapy that are categorized as peripheral devices or central devices. Venous access device selection is tailored to each patient's needs and to the type, duration, and frequency of infusion.
Peripheral Devices
Peripheral venous access devices are commonly used for short-term IV therapy in the hospital setting. A peripheral IV is an intravenous catheter inserted by percutaneous venipuncture into a peripheral vein and held in place with a sterile transparent dressing. The transparent dressing helps to keep the site sterile, prevents accidental dislodgement, and allows the nurse to visualize the insertion site through the dressing. A securement device may be added to prevent accidental dislodgement.
The patient’s upper extremities (hands and arms) are the preferred sites for insertion. However, a potential limitation of using the hand veins is they are smaller than the cephalic, basilic, or brachial veins in the arm. If the patient requires rapid infusions where a larger gauge IV is warranted, the larger veins in the upper arm should be considered.
Peripheral IVs are used for short-term infusions of fluids, medications, or blood. Peripheral IVs are easy to monitor and can be inserted at the bedside by nurses and other trained professionals. After IV access has been obtained, the hub of an intravenous catheter is attached to a short extension set or a primary IV administration set. Luer lock connectors on the extension tubing and/or administration sets permit syringes to be attached to administer medications or fluid flushes.
Saline lock refers to the use of a short extension set that allows IV access without requiring ongoing IV infusions. When not in use, the lock is flushed with saline according to agency policy and clamped to ensure the site remains sterile and blood does not flow out of the extension tubing. See Figure 23.10[45] for an image of a saline lock.
If the patient requires continuous infusion of IV fluids, the extension tubing from the IV catheter is connected to a primary IV administration set. The IV tubing can be run through an infusion pump to administer fluids or medications at a programmed rate of infusion (typically calculated in mL/hour) or via gravity by setting a drip rate with the roller clamp (typically calculated at drops/minute). Manufacturers list the drop rate on the IV packaging. Because of the risk of error that can occur with infusion by gravity, many agencies require the use of an infusion pump to ensure correct flow rate.
Contraindications to Peripheral IV Access Sites
Before inserting a peripheral IV, the patient should be assessed for contraindications related to insertion sites in the upper extremities. For example, patients who have a history of lumpectomy or mastectomy, an arteriovenous fistula, or current lymphedema often have restrictions that prohibit venipuncture into the affected extremity.[46] Additionally, deep vein thrombosis (DVT), fractures, contractures, or extensive scarring may also prohibit the placement of a peripheral IV. Hospitalized patients may have signage or a bracelet stating "limb alert" to alert heath care professionals to these conditions.
Midline Peripheral Catheters
Midline peripheral catheters have a larger catheter (i.e., 16-18 gauge) that allows for rapid infusions. Insertion is ultrasound-guided and can be inserted by RNs with additional training or other trained professionals. Midline catheters are typically inserted into the basilic, cephalic, or brachial veins of the upper arm with the tip placed near the level of the axilla. They are much longer and inserted deeper than a peripheral IV, but do not extend into a central vessel, so they are not considered a central line. Therefore, they have a lower risk of infection than central venous access. Any medication that can be administered through a peripheral line can be administered via a midline peripheral catheter. They can also be used for longer duration than traditional peripheral venous access, which is ideal for patients needing extended hospital stays or IV access. Based on agency policy, midline catheters may also be used for blood sample collection, thus limiting the number of venipunctures a patient receives. Site care for a midline peripheral catheter is similar to a peripheral IV dressing change.[47],[48]
Central Venous Access Devices
A central venous access device (CVAD) is a type of vascular access established by specially trained registered nurses and other health care personnel. It involves the insertion of a tube into a vein in the neck, chest, or groin and threaded into a central vein (most commonly the internal jugular, subclavian, or femoral) and advanced until the tip of the catheter resides within the inferior vena cava, superior vena cava, or right atrium.[49] Only specially trained health professionals may insert central venous access devices, but nurses provide routine care of CVADs, including dressing changes. See Figure 23.11[50] for an image of a central line requiring a dressing change.
A central venous access device can be left in for longer periods of time and is useful for administering concentrated medications and fluids, such as TPN or hyperosmotic fluids, that would be otherwise irritating to smaller peripheral veins. However, central venous access devices have an increased risk for the development of bloodstream infections, so strict sterile technique is required during insertion, and aseptic technique is used for maintenance. Central venous access devices are further discussed in the "Manage Central Lines" chapter of Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
Peripheral Inserted Central Catheters
A peripheral inserted central catheter (PICC) is a thin, flexible tube inserted into a vein in the upper arm and guided into the superior vena cava. It is used to give intravenous fluids, blood transfusions, chemotherapy, and other medications requiring a central line. It can also be used for blood sampling. A PICC may stay in place for weeks or months and helps avoid the need for repeated needlesticks. PICC lines are further discussed in the "Manage Central Lines" chapter of Open RN Nursing Advanced Skills.
General Guidelines for IV Therapy
The following are general guidelines for peripheral IV therapy[51]:
- IV fluid therapy is ordered by a provider. The order must include the type of solution or medication, total amount of fluid, rate of infusion, duration, date, and time.
- IV therapy is an invasive procedure. Significant complications can occur if the wrong amount of IV fluids or incorrect medication is given or if aseptic technique is not strictly followed.
- Nurses must understand the indications and duration for IV therapy for each patient. Practice guidelines recommend that patients receiving IV therapy for more than six days should be assessed for an intermediate or long-term device such as a central venous access device (CVAD).
- Hospitalized patients may have an order for a small hourly infusion rate, such as 10-20 mL/hour, historically referred to in practice as a "to keep open" (TKO) or "keep vein open" (KVO) rate.
- IV administration sets require routine replacement to promote patient safety and reduce the risk of infection. Primary and secondary continuous administration sets used to administer solutions other than lipids, blood, or blood products are typically changed every 96 hours, or up to every 7 days, as directed by agency policy and/or the manufacturer’s instructions. Administration sets should also be changed if contamination or compromise in the integrity of the product or system is suspected. Secondary administration sets that are detached from a primary administration set are typically changed every 24 hours or as directed by agency policy. Administration sets should be labelled according to agency policy with the date of initiation or the date of change indicated.[52]
Age-related hearing loss.
To prepare for intravenous therapy administration, the nurse should collect important subjective and objective assessment information from the patient.
Subjective Assessment
When performing the subjective assessment, the nurse should begin by focusing on data collection that may signify a potential complication if a patient receives IV infusion therapy. The nurse should begin by identifying if the patient has medication allergies or a latex allergy. The patient’s history should also be considered with special attention given to those with known congestive heart failure (CHF) or chronic kidney disease (CKD) because they are more susceptible to developing fluid overload. Additionally, the patient should be asked if they have any pain or discomfort in their IV access site now or during the infusion of medications or fluids.
Life Span Considerations
The needs and characteristics of special patient populations, including physiologic, developmental, communication/cognitive ability, and/or safety requirements, are identified and addressed in the planning, insertion, removal, care, management, and monitoring of vascular access devices (VADs) and with administration of infusion therapy.[53]
Children
Safety measures for a child with an IV infusion include assessing the IV site every hour for patency. Infused volumes and signs of fluid overload should be carefully assessed and documented frequently per agency policy.
Joint stabilization may be applied to deter the child from tampering with the IV site or tubing. However, it should be applied in a manner that permits visual inspection and assessment of the vascular access site and the vascular pathway, and it does not exert pressure that will cause circulatory constriction, pressure injury, or nerve damage in the area of flexion or under the device. Additionally, it should be removed periodically for assessment of circulatory status, range of motion and function, and skin integrity. Wooden tongue depressors should not be used as joint stabilization devices in preterm infants or immunocompromised individuals due to the risk of a fungal infection.[54]
Additionally, the tubing should be well-secured, and the dressing should remain free from moisture so the IV site is not compromised. Be aware that mobile children will require guidance to ensure that the tubing is not obstructed if they sit or lie on the tubing accidentally.
Older Adults
Nurses must recognize physiologic changes associated with the aging process and its effect on immunity, drug dosage and volume limitations, pharmacologic actions, interactions, side effects, monitoring parameters, and response to infusion therapy. Anatomical changes, including loss of thickness of the dermal skin layer, thickening of the tunica intima/media, and loss of connective tissue, contribute to vein fragility and present challenges in vascular access. Nurses must assess for any changes in cognitive abilities, dexterity, and the ability to communicate or learn (e.g., changes in vision, hearing, speech) that impact IV therapy.[55]
Older adults with an IV infusion should be frequently monitored for the development of fluid volume overload. Signs of fluid volume overload include elevated blood pressure and respiratory rate, decreased oxygen saturation, peripheral edema, fine crackles in the posterior lower lobes of the lungs, or signs of worsening heart failure. Additionally, older adults have delicate venous walls that may not withstand rapid infusion rates. It is important to monitor the IV site patency carefully when infusing large amounts of fluids at faster rates and appropriately modify the infusion rate.
Every time you interact with the patient, assess the IV site for signs of complications and educate the patient to inform you if there is tenderness or swelling at the IV site.Objective Assessment
Follow agency policy and procedures regarding IV therapy assessment and documentation. Current infusion standards indicate the venous access device site, the entire infusion system, and the patient should be assessed for signs of complications at a frequency dependent on a variety of factors, including the patient's age, condition, and cognition; the type and frequency of the intravenous fluid/medication; and the health care setting. In inpatient and nursing facilities, peripherally inserted IVs should be assessed at least every 4 hours with increased frequency of assessment every 1 to 2 hours for patients who are critically ill, sedated, or have cognitive deficits, and hourly for neonatal/pediatric patients and patients receiving infusions of vesicant medications.[56]
The entire IV infusion system, from the patient's IV insertion site and dressing to the IV solution container, is routinely assessed by the nurse for system integrity, infusion accuracy, identification of complications, and expiration dates throughout the course of treatment. The IV site should be free of redness, pallor, swelling, coolness, or warmth to the touch and the IV infusion should flow freely.[57]
The nurse should also be aware of different types of intravenous access that may be used for an infusion. For example, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) looks similar to intravenous access but requires different assessment and monitoring as a central line. Please review Table 23.3 to consider the expected and unexpected assessment findings that may occur with peripheral IV therapy.
Table 23.3 Expected Versus Unexpected Findings With IV Therapy
| Assessment | Expected Findings | Unexpected Findings (document and notify provider if a new finding*) |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection | IV site free of redness, swelling, tenderness, coolness, or warmth to touch | IV site with redness, swelling, tenderness, coolness, or warmth to the touch |
| Patency | IV fluid flows freely | IV fluid does not flow; patient reports pain during flush |
| *CRITICAL CONDITIONS to report immediately | Notify the HCP if there is redness, warmth, or blisters at the site |
To prepare for intravenous therapy administration, the nurse should collect important subjective and objective assessment information from the patient.
Subjective Assessment
When performing the subjective assessment, the nurse should begin by focusing on data collection that may signify a potential complication if a patient receives IV infusion therapy. The nurse should begin by identifying if the patient has medication allergies or a latex allergy. The patient’s history should also be considered with special attention given to those with known congestive heart failure (CHF) or chronic kidney disease (CKD) because they are more susceptible to developing fluid overload. Additionally, the patient should be asked if they have any pain or discomfort in their IV access site now or during the infusion of medications or fluids.
Life Span Considerations
The needs and characteristics of special patient populations, including physiologic, developmental, communication/cognitive ability, and/or safety requirements, are identified and addressed in the planning, insertion, removal, care, management, and monitoring of vascular access devices (VADs) and with administration of infusion therapy.[58]
Children
Safety measures for a child with an IV infusion include assessing the IV site every hour for patency. Infused volumes and signs of fluid overload should be carefully assessed and documented frequently per agency policy.
Joint stabilization may be applied to deter the child from tampering with the IV site or tubing. However, it should be applied in a manner that permits visual inspection and assessment of the vascular access site and the vascular pathway, and it does not exert pressure that will cause circulatory constriction, pressure injury, or nerve damage in the area of flexion or under the device. Additionally, it should be removed periodically for assessment of circulatory status, range of motion and function, and skin integrity. Wooden tongue depressors should not be used as joint stabilization devices in preterm infants or immunocompromised individuals due to the risk of a fungal infection.[59]
Additionally, the tubing should be well-secured, and the dressing should remain free from moisture so the IV site is not compromised. Be aware that mobile children will require guidance to ensure that the tubing is not obstructed if they sit or lie on the tubing accidentally.
Older Adults
Nurses must recognize physiologic changes associated with the aging process and its effect on immunity, drug dosage and volume limitations, pharmacologic actions, interactions, side effects, monitoring parameters, and response to infusion therapy. Anatomical changes, including loss of thickness of the dermal skin layer, thickening of the tunica intima/media, and loss of connective tissue, contribute to vein fragility and present challenges in vascular access. Nurses must assess for any changes in cognitive abilities, dexterity, and the ability to communicate or learn (e.g., changes in vision, hearing, speech) that impact IV therapy.[60]
Older adults with an IV infusion should be frequently monitored for the development of fluid volume overload. Signs of fluid volume overload include elevated blood pressure and respiratory rate, decreased oxygen saturation, peripheral edema, fine crackles in the posterior lower lobes of the lungs, or signs of worsening heart failure. Additionally, older adults have delicate venous walls that may not withstand rapid infusion rates. It is important to monitor the IV site patency carefully when infusing large amounts of fluids at faster rates and appropriately modify the infusion rate.
Every time you interact with the patient, assess the IV site for signs of complications and educate the patient to inform you if there is tenderness or swelling at the IV site.Objective Assessment
Follow agency policy and procedures regarding IV therapy assessment and documentation. Current infusion standards indicate the venous access device site, the entire infusion system, and the patient should be assessed for signs of complications at a frequency dependent on a variety of factors, including the patient's age, condition, and cognition; the type and frequency of the intravenous fluid/medication; and the health care setting. In inpatient and nursing facilities, peripherally inserted IVs should be assessed at least every 4 hours with increased frequency of assessment every 1 to 2 hours for patients who are critically ill, sedated, or have cognitive deficits, and hourly for neonatal/pediatric patients and patients receiving infusions of vesicant medications.[61]
The entire IV infusion system, from the patient's IV insertion site and dressing to the IV solution container, is routinely assessed by the nurse for system integrity, infusion accuracy, identification of complications, and expiration dates throughout the course of treatment. The IV site should be free of redness, pallor, swelling, coolness, or warmth to the touch and the IV infusion should flow freely.[62]
The nurse should also be aware of different types of intravenous access that may be used for an infusion. For example, a peripherally inserted central catheter (PICC) looks similar to intravenous access but requires different assessment and monitoring as a central line. Please review Table 23.3 to consider the expected and unexpected assessment findings that may occur with peripheral IV therapy.
Table 23.3 Expected Versus Unexpected Findings With IV Therapy
| Assessment | Expected Findings | Unexpected Findings (document and notify provider if a new finding*) |
|---|---|---|
| Inspection | IV site free of redness, swelling, tenderness, coolness, or warmth to touch | IV site with redness, swelling, tenderness, coolness, or warmth to the touch |
| Patency | IV fluid flows freely | IV fluid does not flow; patient reports pain during flush |
| *CRITICAL CONDITIONS to report immediately | Notify the HCP if there is redness, warmth, or blisters at the site |
