14.3 Bilingualism and Cultural Switching

As noted in the earlier section, language can play a significant role in the intensity of culture shock and an individual’s adaptation to a new culture. A bilingual or multilingual person can traditionally be defined as an individual who uses (understands and produces) two (or more) languages regularly (Grosjean, 2013). Globally, most English speakers speak at least one other language fluently.

• 59% of Europeans speak more than one language (2023 Eurobarometer)
• 23% of people living in the U.S. speak more than one language (2025 U.S. Census Report)
• 18% of Canadians speak more than one language (2024 Government of Canada)

A bilingual person’s initial exposure to both languages may have started in early childhood (e.g., before age 3) (Baker, 2006), but exposure may also begin later in life. People often assume that bilinguals must be equally proficient in their languages, but proficiency varies by domain. For example, a bilingual person may have greater proficiency for work-related terms in one language and family-related terms in another (Grosjean, 2013).

Takano and Nado (1993) describe the foreign language effect (FLE), which refers to a temporary decline in thinking by those who use a second language rather than their native language. They explain that when an individual is spoken to in a second language, linguistic processing (not cognitive processing) is necessary for an appropriate response, and to accommodate the processing, thinking declines. The decline diminishes with practice and increased proficiency (i.e., interpreters). Using German, Korean, and English speakers, the researchers found that the FLE was larger when the discrepancy between the native and foreign languages was greater (e.g., German and Korean) and smaller when the differences between the native and foreign languages were more minor (e.g., German and English) (Takano & Nado, 1995).

Research examining the interaction between bilingual individuals’ first language and second language has shown that both languages influence one another, and on cognitive functioning outside of language. For example, research on executive functions such as working memory, perception, and attentional and inhibitory control has suggested that bilinguals have cognitive advantages over their monolingual peers (Marian & Shook, 2012).

Psychological and cultural research has identified differences among multilingual and bilingual speakers when speaking a foreign language. For example, Ervin (1964) found that English/French bilinguals demonstrated different characteristics and emotions when telling stories (based on the Thematic Apperception Test) in English versus French. Matsumoto and colleagues (2008) found that Spanish and English-speaking Mexican bilinguals were more accurate in judging emotions in English but inferred greater intensity of subjective experience in the expresser in Spanish.

Additionally, there appear to be age-related benefits for bilinguals. Speaking more than one language seems to help older adults reduce cognitive decline, and some research has suggested that bilingual ability can delay the onset of Alzheimer’s disease (Marian & Shook, 2012). There is substantial disagreement over how researchers should interpret the findings on the cognitive benefits of bilingualism. Systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies have found mixed evidence for cognitive advantages in healthy adults. Others have suggested that publication bias (only publishing studies that show positive cognitive benefits) has provided a distorted view of the evidence. Though mixed, research results have found support for cognitive, psychological, and cultural differences in the experiences of bilingual and multilingual individuals.

Watch this video that summarizes why being bilingual is good for your brain.

Why Being Bilingual is Good For Your Brain | BBC Ideas (YouTube)

Cultural Switching

As we learned earlier, individuals fully immersed in more than one culture likely have a bicultural or multicultural identity, which may or may not be associated with language ability or proficiency. Bicultural individuals may experience difficulty balancing identities because of the influence of both cultures. Bicultural identity may also positively affect individuals in terms of the additional knowledge they acquire from belonging to more than one culture. Individuals can make cognitive, behavioral, and linguistic switches to negotiate different social interactions and situations using knowledge from more than one culture. We will learn about two types of cultural switching: cultural frame switching and code switching.

Cultural Frame Switching

Cultural frame switching refers to bicultural or multicultural individuals accessing different culture-specific mental modules or changing their perspective of the world, depending on the language used (Hong et al., 1997). Research with bicultural individuals has shown that culture-specific cues can elicit culture-specific attributions, values, and personality differences. Benet-Martinez and colleagues (2002) found that Chinese American biculturals displayed more internal attributions when primed with American icons (e.g., Superman), and more external attributions when primed with Chinese icons (e.g., the Great Wall). Similarly, Hong Kong Chinese and Chinese Americans generated more collective self-descriptions when their Chinese identity was activated than North Americans. In a different study, North Americans and Chinese Americans generated more individual self-descriptions when their American identity was activated than Hong Kong Chinese (Hong et al., 2001). Different personality traits were activated among Spanish-English bilinguals when completing a personality questionnaire in English (Ramírez-Esparzaa et al., 2006). Spanish-English speakers scored higher on extroversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness when completing the questionnaire in English.

From a practical standpoint, culturally influenced differences in language and meaning can lead to some interesting encounters, ranging from awkward to informative to disastrous. Words in two languages that may seem to be exact translations of each other are likely to have different sets of culture-specific conceptual associations. For example, in Taiwan, Pepsi used the slogan “Come Alive with Pepsi” only to find out later that when translated, it meant, “Pepsi brings your ancestors back from the dead” (Kwintessential Limited, 2012). Another example is the “Got Milk?” campaign, which was very successful in the United States. When this phrase was translated literally into Spanish as “Tienes (Do you have) Leche (milk)?” for use in its Hispanic media debut, there were some serious problems. That particular phrase is taken literally in Hispanic culture to mean, “Are you lactating?” This message was certainly not what the advertisers intended to convey, but it underscores the importance of cultural frame switching when engaging bicultural or multicultural individuals.

Code Switching

Code switching involves changing from one way of speaking to another between or within interactions and includes changes in accent, dialect, and language (Martin & Nakayama, 2010). Code switching can also refer to multicultural individuals using multiple languages in conversation or other communicative acts (e.g., gestures, body language, understood contexts). By using different languages simultaneously, the brain switches back and forth between transmitting and receiving messages. Code switching among multicultural individuals creates a dual communication system in which people can maintain their identities with their in-group but can still acquire tools and gain access needed to function in a larger dominant society (Yancy, 2011).

There are many reasons that people might code-switch. Cross-cultural research indicates that an accent can activate stereotypes and change perceptions (Bourhis et al., 1975; Dixon & Mahoney, 2004). In the United States, people with a Southern accent are perceived as being less intelligent and having a lower socioeconomic status when compared to individuals with a standard American accent (Phillips, 2010). If an individual believes their accent leads others to form unfavorable impressions, they can consciously change it with much practice and effort. Once their ability to speak without their Southern accent is honed, they may quickly switch between their native accent when talking with friends and family and their modified accent when speaking in professional settings.

Increased outsourcing and globalization have heightened pressure for code switching among call center workers in India. Although many Indians learn English in school as a result of British colonization, their accents often activate negative stereotypes and reactions among Western customers calling for help or customer service support. Some Indian call center workers complete intense training to code-switch and accommodate their customers’ speaking style (Pal, 2004). There has been a growing trend toward accent neutralization as a response to racist verbal abuse that call center workers receive from customers (Nadeem, 2011).

People who work or live in multilingual settings may code-switch many times throughout the day, or even within a single conversation. Some cultural linguists have argued that due to social media, most Americans engage in code-switching regularly. Words like text, tweet, liked, googled, and communicating with symbols (e.g., emojis) are used daily across technological platforms and by individuals of all ages. Also, within the United States, some people of color may engage in code-switching when communicating with dominant group members because they fear they may be negatively judged, and switching may minimize perceived differences. Code switching may also signal a shift from formal interactions to more informal interactions, and individuals may code switch to reinforce their in-group identity (Heller, 1992).

As our interactions continue in more multinational contexts, the expectations for code switching and accommodation will surely increase. We need to consider the intersection of culture and power, think critically about how expectations for code switching may be based on cultural biases, and avoid ethnocentric bias and misinterpretations.

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