2.2 Ecological and Geographic Cultural Variations in Learning

Ecological and Geographic Cultural Variations

Variations (differences) that can be attributed to environmental or cultural factors include differences related to ecology, resources, and people (Creanza et al., 2017). Group variation arises because different groups encounter different environments and conditions (Boyd & Richerson, 2011b). Van de Vliert (2011) examined these components and their impact on in-group favoritism (preferences for people who are similar to us that result in disproportionate shares of resources). Using data from almost 180 countries, in-group favoritism was highest in cultures with the lowest income and harshest, most demanding climates (e.g., extreme heat or cold) and lowest in cultures with high national income and undemanding climates. Ecological stress and scarce resources created social norms that favor some people over others. In-group favoritism is shaped by ecological factors like climate, national wealth (resources), and connections to family and members of the in-group. By examining ecology, national wealth, and behaviors collectively, we can see the relationship between these factors and cultural adaptations.

Environmental variance refers to differences among groups because environments are different. Stressors can be abiotic (e.g., climate, UV radiation, or high altitude), biotic (e.g., disease), or social (e.g., war and psychological stress). Evidence is growing that environmental stressors (or pressures) can cause genetic variations (i.e., gene changes).

Population migration to high altitudes has altered red blood cells to accommodate the reduced oxygen levels at high altitudes (Beall, 2004). Malaria is a biotic example of an environmental variant. Malaria is a disease carried by mosquitoes and affects thousands of people each year. A change in red blood cell shape (sickle or semicircle) is a genetic adaptation present in tropical climates to protect individuals from malaria, but in other environments, the adaptation can be quite harmful to a person. Sickle cell anemia is a disease that has emerged because the once advantageous adaptation causes joint inflammation and pain in people when expressed in other environments.

Sherpa is one of the major ethnic groups native to the most mountainous regions of Nepal. It is believed that their superior climbing ability at high altitudes is the result of a genetic adaptation.

Cultural variance refers to different behaviors among groups due to different learning. Cultural adaptations can occur at any time and may be as simple as putting on a coat when it is cold or as complicated as engineering, building, and installing a heating system in a building. Consider contemporary hunter-gatherer societies in the Arctic and Kalahari. These groups inhabit hostile environments that are separated by thousands of miles. However, they have not developed massive distinct genetic adaptations to these environments, yet they are still thriving because of cultural adaptations.

Cultural variance can also lead to conflicts between groups. Conflicts between groups can be caused by varying factors, such as access to available resources, or one group may engage in ethnocentric beliefs and behaviors. Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture. Part of ethnocentrism is the belief one’s own race, ethnicity, or cultural group is the most important or that some or all aspects of its culture are superior to those of other groups. Some people will call it cultural ignorance. Ethnocentrism often leads to incorrect assumptions about others’ behavior based on one’s norms, values, and beliefs. In extreme cases, a group of individuals may see another culture as wrong or immoral and, because of this, may try to convert, sometimes forcibly, the group to their ways of living. War and genocide could also be a devastating result.

What is Ethnocentrism (YouTubeLinks to an external site.)

In addition to environmental variations and ecological pressures, cultural adaptations may be shaped by access to arable land, sustainable strategies (e.g., fishing, hunting, agriculture), and food sources. In other words, resources  available to the population. For example, the people of India revere cows and believe that eating a cow is a terrible act, which might seem strange to people in other countries. Cows in India are considered sacred. Cows are viewed as more than just animals because they provide precious milk. Cows must be kept alive and cared for to ensure milk is always available. The cow is a food source, even if not in the way that, say, an American or European would view it. The sacredness of the cow was a cultural adaptive measure by the Indian people to protect a critical, renewable resource.

The following article, With No-fishing Zones, Mexican Fishermen Restored the Marine EcosystemLinks to an external site., represents an example of many of the concepts covered in this lesson thus far, including the ability to create new responses to the environment.

Another example of cultural adaptation and using local resources is building a shelter or a home. In the southwest United States, before air conditioning (and even with air conditioning), houses were built to survive the hot, dry climate. The bricks were made from abundant dirt and used few windows, which kept heat in during the winter and out during the summer. The flat roof construction catches the precious and scarce rainfall in the southwest. To those in other parts of the world, it is just a structure, but to the people of the southwest, it meant survival.

Cultural similarities can be explained by adaptations of different groups to similar environmental conditions, and cultural variations can also be explained by changing environmental conditions. Since environmental changes were not predictable, cultures changed in many different directions. Once, similar cultures could become dissimilar with selective pressures and ecological distress, and the opposite could also happen; cultures that were once different could become similar.

Cultural Transmission

Environmental pressure is only one of many potential change agents that may lead to cultural adaptations. Others include technological innovation, such as the internet, and contact with other cultures, which can produce or inhibit changes in cultural practices. Given that cultural evolution can advance or regress, the question becomes: how do some ideas, practices, and behaviors catch on more quickly than others?

Three factors that affect cultural transmission are:

• Innovation
• Diffusion
• Acculturation

Innovation is an idea, practice, or object perceived as new and adopted by an individual or group. Groups with high interconnectivity are more innovative and less likely to lose knowledge. In a large group, one person will likely make a discovery that will be adopted or have essential information to share with the group, but only if it is useful (Heine, 2016). Think about it – we strongly desire to help one another (cooperate), so when you get helpful information (e.g., the location of your final exam has changed), what do you do? Chances are, you will contact your classmates to inform them about the changes.

Diffusion is the spread of material and non-material culture and relates to the integration between and within cultures. Middle-class Americans can fly overseas and return with a new appreciation of Thai noodles or Italian gelato. Access to television and the Internet has brought the lifestyles and values portrayed in sitcoms into homes around the globe. Twitter feeds from public demonstrations in one nation have encouraged political protesters in other countries. When this kind of diffusion occurs, material objects and ideas from one culture are introduced into another. Ideas that are easily communicated are more likely to spread, and emotional messages will spread more quickly. If an idea or a message challenges our assumptions or expectations but seems reasonable, it is also more likely to be shared and communicated (known as the minimally counterintuitive idea).

Acculturation is the social, psychological, and cultural change process that happens when cultures blend. Acculturation can be experienced at the level of a group (e.g., war, political domination, colonization) and the level of the individual. When foreign-born individuals acculturate to a new culture, this changes norms, values, religious practices, diet, healthcare, and other social institutions. Some of the most noticeable effects of acculturation often include food, clothing, and language changes. We discuss acculturation and culture shock more fully later in the course.

Test your knowledge