6.4 Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

A clast is a fragment of rock or mineral, ranging in size from less than a micron (a millionth of a meter) to as big as an apartment block. The smaller ones tend to be composed of a single mineral crystal, and the larger ones are typically composed of pieces of rock. As we’ve seen, most sand-sized clasts are made of quartz because quartz is more resistant to weathering than any other common mineral. Many of the clasts that are smaller than sand size (less than 1/16th millimeter) are made of clay minerals. Most clasts larger than sand size (greater than 2 millimeters) are actual fragments of rock, and commonly these might be fine-grained rock like basalt or andesite, or if they are bigger, coarse-grained rock like granite or gneiss. Sedimentary rocks that are made up of “clasts” are called clastic sedimentary rocks.  A comparable term is “detrital sedimentary rocks”.

Grain-Size Classification

Geologists that study sediments and sedimentary rocks use the Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale for describing the sizes of the grains in these materials (Table 6.1).

Table 6.1 The Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale for classifying sediments and the grains that make up sedimentary rocks
Type Description Size range (millimetres) Size range (microns)
Boulder large 1024 and up
medium 512 to 1024
small 256 to 512
Cobble large 128 to 256
small 64 to 128
Pebble (Granule) very coarse 32 to 64
coarse 16 to 32
medium 8 to 16
fine 4 to 8
very fine 2 to 4
Sand very coarse 1 to 2 1000 to 2000
coarse 0.5 to 1 500 to 1000
medium 0.25 to 0.5 (1/4 to 1/2 mm) 250 to 500
fine 0.125 to 0.25 (1/8th to 1/4 mm) 125 to 250
very fine 0.063 to 0.125 (or 1/16th to 1/8th mm) 63 to 125
Silt very course 32 to 63
course 16 to 32
medium 8 to 16
fine 4 to 8
very fine 2 to 4
Clay clay 0 to 2

There are six main grain-size categories; five are broken down into subcategories, with clay being the exception. The diameter limits for each successive subcategory are twice as large as the one beneath it. In general, a boulder is bigger than a toaster and difficult to lift. There is no upper limit to the size of boulder.[1] A small cobble will fit in one hand, a large one in two hands. A pebble is something that you could throw quite easily. The smaller ones—known as granules—are gravel size, but still you could throw one. You can’t really throw a single grain of sand. Sand ranges from 2 millimeters down to 0.063 millimeters, and its key characteristic is that it feels “sandy” or gritty between your fingers—even the finest sand grains feel that way. Silt is essentially too small for individual grains to be visible, and while sand feels sandy to your fingers, silt feels smooth to your fingers but gritty in your mouth. Clay is so fine that it feels smooth even in your mouth.

Geologic map of AZ highlighting area around Yuma Backyard Geology:  Sand and Gravel builds Arizona

In most U.S. states, sand and gravel is the number one mineral commodity. Why? Because it’s the critical ingredient of American infrastructure – buildings, roads, bridges, and more.  In Arizona, sand and gravel is second only to copper in terms of annual value of industrial mineral mining.  Many sand and gravel quarries can be found along river systems, because that is where the sediment was ultimately deposited.

Figure 6.4.1 A sand and gravel quarry along the Gila River. Jon Spencer, AZGS, 2011. CC-BY-NC

Movement of clasts

If you drop a granule into a glass of water, it will sink quickly to the bottom (less than half a second). If you drop a grain of sand into the same glass, it will sink more slowly (a second or two depending on the size). A grain of silt will take several seconds to get to the bottom, and a particle of fine clay may never get there. The rate of settling is determined by the balance between gravity and friction, as shown in Figure 6.1.2.  Large particles settle quickly because the gravitational force (which is proportional to the mass, and therefore to the volume of the particle) is much greater than the frictional resistance (which is proportional to the surface area of the particle). For smaller particles the difference between gravitational push and frictional resistance is less, so they settle slowly.

Figure 6.4.2 The two forces operating on a grain of sand in water. Gravity is pushing it down, and the friction between the grain and the water is resisting that downward force.

Small particles that settle slowly spend longer suspended in the water, and therefore tend to get moved farther than large particles if the water is moving.

Transportation

One of the key principles of sedimentary geology is that the ability of a moving medium (air or water) to move sedimentary particles—and keep them moving—is dependent on the velocity of flow. The faster the medium flows, the larger the particles it can move. This is illustrated in Figure 6.1.3. Parts of the river are moving faster than other parts, especially where the slope is greatest and the channel is narrow. Not only does the velocity of a river change from place to place, but it changes from season to season.  During peak dischargeDischarge of a stream is the volume of flow passing a point per unit time. It’s normally measured in cubic meters per second (m3/s).[/footnote] at the location of Figure 6.1.3, the water is high enough to flow over the embankment on the right, and it flows fast enough to move the boulders that cannot be moved during low flows.

Figure 6.4.3 Variations in flow velocity on the Englishman River near Parksville, B.C. When the photo was taken the river was not flowing fast enough anywhere to move the boulders and cobbles visible here.  During flood events the water flows right over the snow-covered bank on the right, and is fast enough to move boulders.

Clasts within streams are moved in several different ways, as illustrated in Figure 6.4.4. Large bed load clasts are pushed (by traction) or bounced along the bottom (by saltation), while smaller clasts are suspended in the water and kept there by the turbulence of the flow. As the flow velocity changes, different-sized clasts may be either incorporated into the flow or deposited on the bottom. At various places along a river, there are always some clasts being deposited, some staying where they are, and some being eroded and transported. This changes over time as the discharge of the river changes in response to changing weather conditions.

Other sediment transportation media, such as waves, ocean currents, and wind, operate under similar principles, with flow velocity as the key underlying factor that controls transportation and deposition.

Figure 6.4.4 Transportation of sediment clasts by stream flow. The larger clasts, resting on the bottom (bedload), are moved by traction (sliding) or by saltation (bouncing). Smaller clasts are kept in suspension by turbulence in the flow. Ions (depicted as + and – in the image, but invisible in real life) are dissolved in the water.

Deposition

Clastic sediments are deposited in a wide range of environments, including glaciers, slope failures, rivers—both fast and slow—lakes, deltas, and ocean environments—both shallow and deep. The size, shape, and sorting of the sediment is related to the energy of the system.  For example, a high energy system, like a mountain stream, will deposit rounded, gravel-sized pieces.  Everything else will mostly be carried away.  A low energy system, like a lake, with deposit very fine sediments, because everything else has already deposited previously.  If the sedimentary deposits last long enough to get covered with other sediments they may eventually form into rocks ranging from fine mudstone to coarse breccia and conglomerate.

Lithification

Lithification is the term used to describe a number of different processes that take place within a deposit of sediment to turn it into solid rock (Figure 6.1.5). One of these processes is burial by other sediments, which leads to compaction of the material and removal of some of the intervening water and air. After this stage, the individual clasts are touching one another. Cementation is the process of crystallization of minerals within the pores between the small clasts, and especially at the points of contact between clasts. Depending on the pressure, temperature, and chemical conditions, these crystals might include a range of minerals, the common ones being calcite, hematite, quartz and clay minerals.

Figure 6.4.5  Lithification turns sediments into solid rock. Lithification involves the compaction of sediments and then the cementation of grains by minerals that precipitate from groundwater in the spaces between these grains. Source: Karla Panchuk (2016) CC BY 4.0

Types of Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

The characteristics and distinguishing features of clastic sedimentary rocks are summarized in Table 6.2. Mudrock is composed of at least 75% silt- and clay-sized fragments. If it is dominated by clay, it is called claystone. If it shows evidence of bedding or fine laminations, it is shale; otherwise, it is mudstone. Mudrocks form in very low energy environments, such as lakes, river backwaters, and the deep ocean.

Table 6.2 The main types of clastic sedimentary rocks and their characteristics.
Group Examples Characteristics
Mudrock mudstone Greater than 75% silt and clay, not bedded
shale Greater than 75% silt and clay, thinly bedded
Coal Dominated by fragments of partially decayed plant matter often enclosed between beds of sandstone or mudrock.
Sandstone quartz sandstone Dominated by sand, greater than 90% quartz
arkose Dominated by sand, greater than 10% feldspar
lithic wacke dominated by sand, greater than 10% rock fragments, greater than 15% silt and clay
Conglomerate Dominated by rounded clasts, granule size and larger
Breccia Dominated by angular clasts, granule size and larger

Most coal forms in fluvial or delta environments where vegetation growth is vigorous and where decaying plant matter accumulates in long-lasting swamps with low oxygen levels. To avoid oxidation and breakdown, the organic matter must remain submerged for centuries or millennia, until it is covered with another layer of either muddy or sandy sediments. It is important to note that in some textbooks coal is described as an “organic sedimentary rock.” In this book, coal is included with the clastic rocks for two reasons: first, because it is made up of fragments of organic matter; and second, because coal seams (sedimentary layers) are almost always interbedded with layers of clastic rocks, such as mudrock or sandstone. In other words, coal accumulates in environments where other clastic rocks accumulate.

Figure 6.4.6 A compositional triangle for arenite sandstones, with the three most common components of sand-sized grains: quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments. Arenites have less than 15% silt or clay. Sandstones with more than 15% silt and clay are called wackes (e.g., quartz wacke, lithic wacke).

It’s worth taking a closer look at the different types of sandstone because sandstone is a common and important sedimentary rock. Typical sandstone compositions are shown in Figure 6.1.6. Sandstones are mostly made up of sand grains of course, but they also include finer material—both silt and clay. The term arenite applies to a so-called clean sandstone, meaning one with less than 15% silt and clay. Considering the sand-sized grains only (the grains larger than 1/16th mm), arenites with 90% or more quartz are called quartz arenites. If they have more than 10% feldspar and more feldspar than rock fragments, they are called feldspathic arenites or arkosic arenites (or just arkose). If they have more than 10% rock fragments, and more rock fragments than feldspar, they are lithic arenites“Lithic” means “rock.” Lithic clasts are rock fragments, as opposed to mineral fragments.[/footnote] A sandstone with more than 15% silt or clay is called a wacke (pronounced wackie). The terms quartz wacke, lithic wacke, and feldspathic wacke are used with limits similar to those on the arenite diagram. Another name for a lithic wacke is greywacke.

Some examples of sandstones, magnified in thin section are shown in Figure 6.1.7. (A thin section is rock sliced thin enough so that light can shine through.)

 

Figure 6.4.7 Microscope photos of three types of sandstone in thin-section. Some of the minerals are labelled: Q=quartz, F=feldspar and L= lithic (rock fragments). The quartz arenite and arkose have relatively little silt-clay matrix, while the lithic wacke has abundant matrix.

Clastic sedimentary rocks in which a significant proportion of the clasts are larger than 2 millimeters are known as conglomerate if the clasts are well rounded, and breccia if they are angular. Conglomerates form in high-energy environments such as fast-flowing rivers, where the particles can become rounded. Breccias typically form where the particles are not transported a significant distance in water, such as alluvial fans and talus slopes.

Exercise 6.2 Classifying sandstones

Using Table 6.1 and Figure 6.1.6, find an appropriate name for each of these rocks.

 


***See 6.9 for Text and Media Attributions


  1. The largest known free-standing rock (i.e., not part of bedrock) is Giant Rock in the Mojave Desert, California. It’s about as big as an apartment building—seven stories high!
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Physical Geology: An Arizona Perspective Copyright © 2022 by Merry Wilson is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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