Chapter Text Attributions

This chapter text was reproduced in its entirety from:

Dynamic Planet:  Exploring Geological Disasters and Environmental Change by Estrada, Londono Michel, and Wilson is licensed under CC-CY-NC-SA.

New assessments have been added.

Associated in-text references:

[1] Richardson, Eliza. (2020). Contracting Earth v. Continental Drift v. Plate Tectonics. Earth 250: Plate Tectonics and People. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth520/content/l2_p2.html CC BY NC SA.

[2] Dastrup, R. Adam. (2020, Jun 1). “3.Planet Earth” Physical Geography and Natural Disasters. https://slcc.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeography/chapter/3-6/ CC BY-NC-SA.

[3] Earle, Steven. (2019, Sep 23). 10.1 Alfred Wegener: The Father of Plate Tectonics. Physical Geology – 2nd Edition. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/10-1-alfred-wegener-the-father-of-plate-tectonics/ CC BY

[4] Wegener, Alfred. The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Fourth and Revised German Ed.). Trans. by John Biram. (1966). Dover Publishers, Inc.: New York, New York.

[5] Conniff, R. (2012, Jun). When Continental Drift Was Considered Pseudoscience. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/when-continental-drift-was-considered-pseudoscience-90353214/

[6] Bressan, David. (2017, Jan 6). Alfred Wegener’s Lost Cause For His Continental Drift Theory.” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/01/06/alfred-wegeners-lost-cause-for-his-continental-drift-theory/?sh=18acad721149

[7] Crust. (2015, May 29). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/crust/

[8] Mantle. (2015, Aug 11). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/mantle/?utm_source=BibblioRCM_Row

[9] Grant, Ray. (n.d.). Arizona Rocks 8 Ultramafic rocks, peridotite. Pinal Geology Museum. https://www.pinalgeologymuseum.org/index.php/learn-play/arizona-rocks/232-arizona-rocks-8-ultramafic-rocks-peridotite

[10] Core. (2015, Aug 17). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/core/

[11] Fecht, S. (2020, Jul 29). 8 Surprising Facts About Marie Tharp, Mapmaker Extraordinaire. New from the Columbia Climate School. https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2020/07/29/surprising-facts-marie-tharp/

[12] Tharp, Marie. (1999, Apr 1). Connect the Dots: Mapping the Seafloor and Discovering the Mid-ocean Ridge. Chapter 2 in Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of ColumbiaTwelve Perspectives on the First Fifty Years 1949-1999 , Laurence Lippsett (Ed.). https://www.whoi.edu/news-insights/content/marie-tharp/

[13] Earth Science by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

[14] An Introduction to Geology by Chris Johnson, Matthew D. Affolter, Paul Inkenbrandt, Cam Mosher is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

[15]  Blay, Chuck, and Siemers. (2004, Feb 4). Robert. Kauai‘’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide, Updated Edition. Self-published updated Edition after TEOK Investigations original edition.

[16] San Francisco volcanic field, Arizona. (2010). Arizona Geological Survey. https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/san-francisco-volcanic-field-arizona

Media Assets

Fig 2.1 World map illustration from 250 million years ago to present.

• USGS. “Fig2-5globes.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html (Public Domain)

2.1

Dutton Institute. (Sep 6, 2016) EARTH250 Contracting Earth Hypothesis. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Yn2KvRVr28

GeoHub Liverpool. (May 17, 2019). Plate Tectonics – isostasy. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2CFSuvm1A4

Fig. 2.1.1 A photo of Alfred Wegener

• Bildindex der Kunst & Architektur. (1910, Jan 1). “Alfred Wegener, 1910”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift#/media/File:Alfred_Wegener_1910.jpg Public Domain

Aus EarthEd. (Apr 15 2020). Continental Drift. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttg5fZk3ddE

Fig. 2.1.2. Map of the supercontinent Pangaea with fossil evidence for continental drift across now-separate continents.

• Osvaldocangaspadilla. (2010, Aug 27). “Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.” Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg

Fig. 2.1.3. Comparison of layers of stacked books and layers of sedimentary rocks.

• Estrada, Charlene. (2021, Mar 25) Books and Rocks. [Online Image]. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Screen-Shot-2021-03-25-at-9.30.35-PM.png (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Fig. 2.1.4. World map showing the extent of the Karoo ice age over Pangaea.

• GeoPotinga.(2014, Dec 14). “Karoo_Glaciation”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse#/media/File:Karoo_Glaciation.png (CC BY-SA 4.0)

FuseSchool – Global Education. (Jun 1, 2017). Continental Drift: Wegener’s Theory | Environmental Chemistry | Chemistry | FuseSchool. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5jQLKWvYBA

Fig. 2.1.5. Last known photograph of Alfred Wegener before his death.

• Archive of Alfred Wegener Institute. (1930, Nov 2). “Wegener_Expedition-1930_026_(retuschiert)” Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wegener_Expedition-1930_026.jpg (Public Domain)

2.2

Fig 2.2.1. Simplified Periodic Table of Elements.

• Double sharp. (2021, Jan 18). “Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table#/media/File:Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Fig 2.2.2. The structure of Earth and its interior, drawn to scale.

• Kelvinsong. (2013, Jan 18). 1920px-Earth_poster. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(geology)#/media/File:Earth_poster.svg )CC BY-SA 3.0).

Khan Academy. (Feb 2, 2011). Structure of the Earth. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4AxZ-6MOznY

Facts Beast. (Feb 17, 2018). How deep is Earths core. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60TSVhYj7Zg

Fig. 2.2.3. Comparison of continental vs. oceanic crust.

• USGS. (2019, Oct 28). Continental_and_oceanic_crust. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_crust#/media/File:Continental_and_oceanic_crust.png (CC 0, Public Domain).

Fig. 2.2.4. Earth cut in one half.

• Argonne National Laboratory. (2014, Jun 17). Composition of Earth’s mantle revisited thanks to research at Argonne’s Advanced Photon Source. [Online Image]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/35734278@N05/14259873660 (CC BY-SA-NC).

Fig 2.2.5. Pie slice of the Earth’s interior.

• Steven Earle. (n.d.). earths-interior-9. [Online Image]. Physical Geology – 2nd Edition. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/part/chapter-9-earths-interior/ (CC BY).

Fig 2.2.6. Backyard Geology mantle xenolith.

• Petr Hyks. (2017, Aug 28). Upper mantle xenolith (mainly olivine & diopside) in basalt. [Online Image]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/130789578@N06/36705417242 (CC BY-NC).

Fig. 2.2.7. Diagram of upper mantle, transition zone, and lower mantle.

• Smcminn1234. (2019, Feb 23). Phase_transformations_in_the_transition_zone_2.0. [Online Image]. WIkimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_transformations_in_the_transition_zone_2.0.jpg (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Fig. 2.2.8. Atomic structure of perovskite.

• Cadmium. (2006, Apr 10). Perovskite. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)#/media/File:Perovskite.jpg (Public Domain).

Brian Ongaga. (Feb 20, 2019). The Earth’s Magnetic Fields Down To Earth Da Vinci Kids TV YouTube. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFzg9XH0dv8

Fig. 2.2.9. Cross-section of the Earth with surface also showing.

• alex grichenko. (n.d.). Planet Earth Center Core. [Online Image]. Public Domain Pictures. https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-image.php?image=50581&picture=planet-earth-center-core (Public Domain).

2.3

Fig. 2.3.1. Photograph of Marie Tharp.

• Library of Congress. (n.d.). “Marie Tharp.” [Online Image]. The Huffington Post. https://img.huffingtonpost.com/asset/5bb618d93c000020010d2917.jpeg?ops=scalefit_720_noupscale (Fair Use).

Dinoxorg. (Feb 7, 2013). The First Ocean Floor Maps. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62D1NrSqVfI

Fig. 2.3.2. The core of the Earth as a magnet.

• TStein. (2008, Jun 21). “Earth’s Magnetic Field Confusion.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earths_Magnetic_Field_Confusion.svg {CC BY-SA 3.0)

Fig. 2.3.3. Magnetic reversals on the Earth over the past 169 Ma.

• Anomie, modified by Charlene Estrada. (2021, Apr 2). “Geomagnetic polarity 0-169 Ma.” [Online Image]. Public Domain.

Fig. 2.3.4. Animation of an oceanic spreading center.

• USGS. (2011, Feb 19). “Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.” [Online Animation]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#/media/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.3.5. Spreading center at Mid-Ocean Ridge with recorded magnetic reversals.

• USGS. (2012, Mar 12).  “Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.3.6. Image of J. Tuzo Wilson.

• Stephen Morris. “John Tuzo Wilson in 1992”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Fig. 2.3.7. Our modern world map divided into the major lithospheric plates.

• USGS. “Tectonic Plates.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/slabs.html (Public Domain).

Khan Academy. (Feb 2, 2011). Plate tectonics: Difference between crust and lithosphere | Cosmology & Astronomy | Khan Academy. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2BWsPVN7c4

Fig. 2.3.8. Convection cells within Earth’s mantle.

• USGS. “Oceanic spreading.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic_spreading.png (Public Domain).

Aus EarthEd. (Jun 17, 2020). Convection. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHr7ESa3_VA

2.4

Fig. 2.4.1. Cross-section of lithosphere and asthenosphere showing three main plate boundaries.

• USGS. “Main types of plate boundaries.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Vigil.html (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.4.2. Buzz Aldrin working on the moon.

• Kimika Yang. “Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin at Work.” [Online Image]. Flickr.  https://www.flickr.com/photos/48054321@N05/28411508926 (Public Domain)

Fig. 2.4.3. Block diagram of oceanic-continental convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. “Oceanic-Continental Destructive Plate Boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (oceanic and continental crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9uGSuyMclc

Fig 2.4.4. Block diagram of oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. “Oceanic-oceanic destructive plate boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg#/media/File:Oceanic-oceanic_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY)

Fig. 2.4.5. Age of oceanic lithosphere.

• NOAA. (2009, Jun 8), “Age of Oceanic Lithosphere.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2008_age_of_oceans_plates.jpg. (Public Domain)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (oceanic crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3p1N3JzJzFQ

Fig. 2.4.6. Block diagram of continental-continental convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. (2015, Dec 25). “Continental-Continental Destructive.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons.  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_same_direction.svg#/media/File:Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY-4.0)

AGU. (Sep 15, 2020). Animation: Continents collide and break apart over time. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhldiOaFqpE&t=39s

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (continental crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdVy6ZQ25WU

2.5

Fig. 2.5.1. Block diagram of divergent boundary on continental crust.

• domdomegg. (2016 Aug 19).”Continental-continental constructive plate boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListFiles&dir=prev&offset=20160127214358%7CSimple_diagram_of_animal_cell_%28numbers%29.svg&user=Domdomegg#/media/File:Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY 4.0).

Fig. 2.5.2. East African rift valley.

• Christoph Hormann. “Albertine Rift East African Rift (artificial rendering).” [Online Image]. View of the Earth. http://earth.imagico.de/view.php?site=rift2a (CC BY-SA 3.0)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Divergence. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf5KPXP4exc

Fig. 2.5.3. Block diagram of divergent boundary on oceanic crust.

• domdomegg. (2016, Aug 20). “Oceanic-oceanic_constructive_plate_boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-oceanic_constructive_plate_boundary.svg

NOC news. (Jun 20, 2016). Hydrothermal vent fields 1080p. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1koFEKfmLw

2.5.4. Age of oceanic lithosphere.

• NOAA. (2009, Jun 8), “Age of Oceanic Lithosphere.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2008_age_of_oceans_plates.jpg. (Public Domain)

2.6

Fig. 2.6.1. Block diagram of transform boundary.

• domdomegg. (2016, Aug 20). “transform.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg#/media/File:Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg (CC BY 4.0).

Fig. 2.6.2. Block diagram of right-lateral fault.

• Elizabeth Johnson. (n.d.). “Right Lateral Transform Fault”. [Online Image].  Visible Geology. https://app.visiblegeology.com/model.html#ahFzfnZpc2libGUtZ2VvbG9neXIPCxIFTW9kZWwYqunKmAEM (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.6.3. Block diagram of left-lateral fault.

• Elizabeth Johnson. (n.d.). “Left Lateral Transform Fault”. [Online Image].  Visible Geology. https://app.visiblegeology.com/model.html#ahFzfnZpc2libGUtZ2VvbG9neXIPCxIFTW9kZWwYubfLmAEM (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.6.4. Piqiang fault in China.

• Bram-fab. (2013, Jul 30). “Piqiang_Fault,_China_detail.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piqiang_Fault,_China_detail.jpg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.5. Piqiang fault with red line.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 1.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step1.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.6. Piqiang fault with red line and blue circle.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 2.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-2.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.7. Piqiang fault with directional arrows.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 3.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-3.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.8. Annotated Piqiang fault.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 4.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-4.png (Public Domain).

2.7

2.7.1. Map of Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount chain.

• NOAA. “Hawaii_hotspot.” [Online Image, adapted by Charlene Estrada]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian%E2%80%93Emperor_seamount_chain#/media/File:Hawaii_hotspot.jpg (Public Domain).

Storm. (Nov 5, 2010). Hawaii’s Hotspot. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYv6V5EJAKc&feature=emb_imp_woyt

2.7.2. Map of San Francisco volcanic field of Northern Arizona.

• NASA. (n.d.). “SanFranciscoDEM.” [Online Image]. Arizona Geological Society. https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/san-francisco-volcanic-field-arizona (CC BY)

2.8

Fig. 2.8.1. Map of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

• Gringer. (2009, Feb 11). “The Pacific Ring of Fire”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_of_Fire#/media/File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.2. Subduction zone at convergent boundary demonstrating hazards.

• USGS. (2000, Nov 30). “subduction zone graphic.” [Online Image]. USGS. https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/subduction-zone-graphic (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.3. Mount Everest and the Himalayan mountain range.

• shrimpo1967 (remix by Papa Lima Whiskey). (2012, Feb 3). “Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest#/media/File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.8.4. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America, South America, Eurasia, and Africa.

• NOAA. (2006, Nov 28). “1024px-Atlantic_bathymetry.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge#/media/File:Atlantic_bathymetry.jpg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.5. Animation of an oceanic spreading center.

• USGS. (2011, Feb 19). “Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.” [Online Animation]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#/media/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif (Public Domain).

USGS. (Dec 31, 2014). Elastic Rebound. [Video File]. https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/elastic-rebound

2.9

Fig. 2.9.1. Supercontinent of Pangaea with modern continental borders.

• Fama Clamosa. (2019, Dec 31). “Pangaea_200Ma.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea#/media/File:Pangaea_200Ma.jpg CC BY-SA 4.0.

Christopher Scotese. (May 31, 2019). Scotese Plate Tectonics Paleogeography & Ice ages. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UevnAq1MTVA&feature=emb_imp_woyt

Fig. 2.9.2. Approximation of world map in 250 million years.

• Pokefan95. (2015, Sep 26). “PangeaUltimaRoughEstimation.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PangeaUltimaRoughEstimation.png (CC 0, Public Domain).

Instructor References

Chapter 2 The Earth in Motion_Text Only