Chapter Text Attributions

Chapter Sections are taken from open source authors in their entirety, but were sometimes edited for clarity or new examples provided.  Authorship as follows with associated in-text references:

Chapter 4.0 Merry Wilson, CC-BY-NC-SA

Chapter 4.1  Dynamic Planet:  Exploring Geological Disasters and Environmental Change by Estrada, Londono Michel, and Wilson is licensed under CC-CY-NC-SA.

Chapter 4.2-4.4 Physical Geology – Second Edition by Steven Earle is licensed under CC BY-NC-SDA 4.0 Steven Earl, CC-BY

Image Descriptions

Figure 4.1.1 image description: The average elemental proportions in the Earth’s crust from the largest amount to the smallest amount. Oxygen (46.6%), Silicon (27.7%), Aluminum (8.1%), Iron (5.0%), Calcium (3.6%), Sodium (2.8%), Potassium (2.6%), Magnesium (2.1%), Others (1.5%). [Return to Figure 3.2.1]

Figure 4.1.3a image description: Dry mantle rock is predominately solid. However, its melting point is dependent on the temperature and pressure the rock is under. The higher the pressure (meaning the farther the rock is from the Earth’s surface), the more likely dry mantle rock is going to be solid. Dry mantle rock under extreme pressure requires a much higher temperature to melt than dry mantle rock under less pressure. As pressure drops (meaning as the rock rises towards the Earth’s surface), the required temperature to melt the mantle rock drops as well.

Figure 4.1.3b image description: In comparison to dry mantle rock, wet mantle rock under the same amount of pressure (at the same distance from the earth’s surface) requires a lower temperature to melt. When liquid is added to dry mantel rock at a pressure and temperature point in which wet mantle rock would be melted, flux melting occurs. [Return to Figure 3.2.3]

Media Attributions

• Figure 4.2.1, 4.2.2, 4.2.3, 4.2.5: © Steven Earle. CC BY.
• Figure 4.2.4: “Cross section” by José F. Vigil from This Dynamic Planet — a wall map produced jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey, the Smithsonian Institution, and the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory. Adapted by Steven Earle. Public domain.