The following resources have been used for research, starting points, and inspiration for this chapter and are available to all under Fair Use or Creative Commons Licensing. Unless otherwise noted in Attributed References or Media Assets, materials have been significantly reworked by this text’s author.

Estrada, C. F., Londono-Michel, C. and Wilson, M. (June 7, 2021). Dynamic Planet: Exploring Geological Disasters and Environmental Change. https://open.maricopa.edu/hazards/ CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Panchuck, K. (2022). Physical geology (H5P edition). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Panchuck, K. (2022). Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

United States Geological Survey (USGS) is licensed under Public Domain.

Media Assets

All images, videos, animations, and H5P activities within this chapter are licensed under Public Domain, Creative Commons, or in rare circumstances, Fair Use.

7

Figure 7.1 Capitol Reef National Park

• Jrmichae. (Sep 23, 2013). Layers in the Rock – Capitol Reef NP. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3d/Layers_in_the_Rock_-_Capital_Reef_NP.JPG  CC BY-SA 4.0

7.1

Figure 7.1.1 The Geologic Timescale. Image by USGS, Public Domain.

Figure 7.1.2 History of key events on Earth. Image by Woudloper, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain.

OER Project. (Sep 5, 2014). Crash Course Big History #5: The Evolutionary Epic. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rRjGX8ms01o&t=328s

H5P

• Panchuck, K. (2022). How does geologic time make geology different? [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0
• Panchuck, K. (2022). Geologic time in years (Converting time units). [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0
• Panchuck, K. (2022). Lord Kelvin and the age of the Earth. [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0
• Panchuck, K. (2022). Eons of Earth history (beginner and advanced). [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0
• Panchuck, K. (2022). Phanerozoic Eon and Paleozoic and Mesozoic Eras of Earth history. [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0

7.2

Figure 7.2.1 Rock layers at Quebrada de las Conchos

• rodoluca. (Oct 30, 2010). Rock Layers at Quebrada de las Conchos- Salta Argentina. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rock_Layers_at_Quebrada_de_las_Conchos_-_Salta_Argentina.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0.

Figure 7.2.2. Folded Himalayan rock layers.

• Kiran Jonnalagadda. (Jul 14, 2009). Folded Himalayan Rock Layers near Gushal in India. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Folded_Himalayan_Rock_Layers_near_Gushal_in_India.jpg CC BY-SA 2.0.

Figure 7.2.3 The Law of Superposition. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.4 The Law of Original Horizontality. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.5 The Law of Inclusions. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.6 Cross-Cutting Relationships. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.7 The Law of Lateral Continuity. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.8 Unconformity at Sonoita, AZ.

Mike Conway. (Jun 2018).  Unconformity along AZ 82 near Sonoita, Arizona. [Online Image]. Arizona Geological Survey. https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/unconformity-along-az-82-near-sonoita-arizona CC BY.

Figure 7.2.9 Nonconformity. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.10 Angular Unconformity. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.11 Disconformity. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.2.12 Paraconformity. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

H5P

• Panchuck, K. (2022). Types of unconformity: text descriptions and images. [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0
• Panchuck, K. (2022). Relative dating exercise 2 (intermediate level). [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0

7.3

Figure 7.3.1 Tyrannosaurus Rex. Image by Charlene Estrada, Public Domain.

Figure 7.3.2 Index Fossils. Image by USGS, Public Domain.

Figure 7.3.3 Isotopes of Hydrogen.

• Dirk Hunniger. (2006, Aug 29). Protium deuterium tritium. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Protium_deuterium_tritium.jpg CC BY-SA 3.0.

Figure 7.3.4 Alpha decay of uranium.

• Jcymc90. (2017, May 25). Descomposicion alfa del uranio. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Descomposicion_alfa_del_uranio.png CC BY-SA 4.0.

Figure 7.3.4 Uranium decay chain, simplified. Image by CDC, Public Domain.

Kiersti Ford. (Oct 19, 2020). Geology-1 Radiometric Dating M&M Experiment – Fresno City College. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__Zskd4q9IQ CC BY

H5P

• Panchuck, K. (2022). Using multiple methods to date a cross-section. [H5P Exercise]. Physical geology (H5P edition V.1.1). BCcampus. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeologyh5p/ CC BY 4.0