Creative Commons Resources for Chapter Text

The following resources have been used for research, starting points, and inspiration for this chapter. Unless otherwise noted in Attributed References or Media Assets, materials have been significantly reworked by this text’s authors.

​Dastrup, R. Adam. (2020, Jun 1). “3.6 Theory of Plate Tectonics.” Physical Geography and Natural Disasters. https://slcc.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeography/chapter/3-6/ CC BY-NC-SA.

An Introduction to Geology by Chris Johnson, Matthew D. Affolter, Paul Inkenbrandt, Cam Mosher is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Geology by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Earth Science by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

(Natural Disasters and Human Impacts by R. Adam Dastrup, MA, GISP is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

(Physical Geology – 2nd Edition by Steven Earle is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

Introduction to Oceanography by Paul Webb is licensed under CC BY 4.0.

United States Geological Survey (USGS) is licensed under Public Domain.

Google Earth is available as Fair Use under Section 107 of the United States Copyright Act.

Chapter Text Attributions

[1] Richardson, Eliza. (2020). Contracting Earth v. Continental Drift v. Plate Tectonics. Earth 250: Plate Tectonics and People. https://www.e-education.psu.edu/earth520/content/l2_p2.html CC BY NC SA.

[2] Dastrup, R. Adam. (2020, Jun 1). “3.Planet Earth” Physical Geography and Natural Disasters. https://slcc.pressbooks.pub/physicalgeography/chapter/3-6/ CC BY-NC-SA.

[3] Earle, Steven. (2019, Sep 23). 10.1 Alfred Wegener: The Father of Plate Tectonics. Physical Geology – 2nd Edition. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/chapter/10-1-alfred-wegener-the-father-of-plate-tectonics/ CC BY

[4] Wegener, Alfred. The Origin of Continents and Oceans (Fourth and Revised German Ed.). Trans. by John Biram. (1966). Dover Publishers, Inc.: New York, New York.

[5] Conniff, R. (2012, Jun). When Continental Drift Was Considered Pseudoscience. Smithsonian Magazine. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/when-continental-drift-was-considered-pseudoscience-90353214/

[6] Bressan, David. (2017, Jan 6). Alfred Wegener’s Lost Cause For His Continental Drift Theory.” Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidbressan/2017/01/06/alfred-wegeners-lost-cause-for-his-continental-drift-theory/?sh=18acad721149

[7] Crust. (2015, May 29). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/crust/

[8] Mantle. (2015, Aug 11). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/mantle/?utm_source=BibblioRCM_Row

[9] Grant, Ray. (n.d.). Arizona Rocks 8 Ultramafic rocks, peridotite. Pinal Geology Museum. https://www.pinalgeologymuseum.org/index.php/learn-play/arizona-rocks/232-arizona-rocks-8-ultramafic-rocks-peridotite

[10] Core. (2015, Aug 17). National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/core/

[11] Fecht, S. (2020, Jul 29). 8 Surprising Facts About Marie Tharp, Mapmaker Extraordinaire. New from the Columbia Climate School. https://news.climate.columbia.edu/2020/07/29/surprising-facts-marie-tharp/

[12] Tharp, Marie. (1999, Apr 1). Connect the Dots: Mapping the Seafloor and Discovering the Mid-ocean Ridge. Chapter 2 in Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of ColumbiaTwelve Perspectives on the First Fifty Years 1949-1999 , Laurence Lippsett (Ed.). https://www.whoi.edu/news-insights/content/marie-tharp/

[13] Earth Science by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

[14] An Introduction to Geology by Chris Johnson, Matthew D. Affolter, Paul Inkenbrandt, Cam Mosher is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

[15]  Blay, Chuck, and Siemers. (2004, Feb 4). Robert. Kauai‘’s Geologic History: A Simplified Guide, Updated Edition. Self-published updated Edition after TEOK Investigations original edition.

[16] San Francisco volcanic field, Arizona. (2010). Arizona Geological Survey. https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/san-francisco-volcanic-field-arizona

Media Assets

Fig 2.1 World map illustration from 250 million years ago to present.

• USGS. “Fig2-5globes.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/historical.html (Public Domain)

2.1

Dutton Institute. (Sep 6, 2016) EARTH250 Contracting Earth Hypothesis. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8Yn2KvRVr28

GeoHub Liverpool. (May 17, 2019). Plate Tectonics – isostasy. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2CFSuvm1A4

Fig. 2.1.1 A photo of Alfred Wegener

• Bildindex der Kunst & Architektur. (1910, Jan 1). “Alfred Wegener, 1910”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_drift#/media/File:Alfred_Wegener_1910.jpg Public Domain

Aus EarthEd. (Apr 15 2020). Continental Drift. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ttg5fZk3ddE

Fig. 2.1.2. Map of the supercontinent Pangaea with fossil evidence for continental drift across now-separate continents.

• Osvaldocangaspadilla. (2010, Aug 27). “Snider-Pellegrini Wegener fossil map.” Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Snider-Pellegrini_Wegener_fossil_map.svg

Fig. 2.1.3. Comparison of layers of stacked books and layers of sedimentary rocks.

• Estrada, Charlene. (2021, Mar 25) Books and Rocks. [Online Image]. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Screen-Shot-2021-03-25-at-9.30.35-PM.png (CC BY-SA 4.0)

Fig. 2.1.4. World map showing the extent of the Karoo ice age over Pangaea.

• GeoPotinga.(2014, Dec 14). “Karoo_Glaciation”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Paleozoic_icehouse#/media/File:Karoo_Glaciation.png (CC BY-SA 4.0)
• FuseSchool – Global Education. (Jun 1, 2017). Continental Drift: Wegener’s Theory | Environmental Chemistry | Chemistry | FuseSchool. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O5jQLKWvYBA

Fig. 2.1.5. Last known photograph of Alfred Wegener before his death.

• Archive of Alfred Wegener Institute. (1930, Nov 2). “Wegener_Expedition-1930_026_(retuschiert)” Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wegener_Expedition-1930_026.jpg (Public Domain)

2.2

Fig 2.2.1. Simplified Periodic Table of Elements.

• Double sharp. (2021, Jan 18). “Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table#/media/File:Simple_Periodic_Table_Chart-blocks.svg (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Fig 2.2.2. The structure of Earth and its interior, drawn to scale.

• Kelvinsong. (2013, Jan 18). 1920px-Earth_poster. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantle_(geology)#/media/File:Earth_poster.svg )CC BY-SA 3.0).

Khan Academy. (Feb 2, 2011). Structure of the Earth. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4AxZ-6MOznY

Facts Beast. (Feb 17, 2018). How deep is Earths core. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=60TSVhYj7Zg

Fig. 2.2.3. Comparison of continental vs. oceanic crust.

• USGS. (2019, Oct 28). Continental_and_oceanic_crust. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_crust#/media/File:Continental_and_oceanic_crust.png (CC 0, Public Domain).

Fig. 2.2.4. Earth cut in one half.

• Argonne National Laboratory. (2014, Jun 17). Composition of Earth’s mantle revisited thanks to research at Argonne’s Advanced Photon Source. [Online Image]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/35734278@N05/14259873660 (CC BY-SA-NC).

Fig 2.2.5. Pie slice of the Earth’s interior.

• Steven Earle. (n.d.). earths-interior-9. [Online Image]. Physical Geology – 2nd Edition. https://opentextbc.ca/physicalgeology2ed/part/chapter-9-earths-interior/ (CC BY).

Fig 2.2.6. Backyard Geology mantle xenolith.

• Petr Hyks. (2017, Aug 28). Upper mantle xenolith (mainly olivine & diopside) in basalt. [Online Image]. Flickr. https://www.flickr.com/photos/130789578@N06/36705417242 (CC BY-NC).

Fig. 2.2.7. Diagram of upper mantle, transition zone, and lower mantle.

• Smcminn1234. (2019, Feb 23). Phase_transformations_in_the_transition_zone_2.0. [Online Image]. WIkimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_transformations_in_the_transition_zone_2.0.jpg (CC BY-SA 4.0).

Fig. 2.2.8. Atomic structure of perovskite.

• Cadmium. (2006, Apr 10). Perovskite. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perovskite_(structure)#/media/File:Perovskite.jpg (Public Domain).

Brian Ongaga. (Feb 20, 2019). The Earth’s Magnetic Fields Down To Earth Da Vinci Kids TV YouTube. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFzg9XH0dv8

Fig. 2.2.9. Cross-section of the Earth with surface also showing.

• alex grichenko. (n.d.). Planet Earth Center Core. [Online Image]. Public Domain Pictures. https://www.publicdomainpictures.net/en/view-image.php?image=50581&picture=planet-earth-center-core (Public Domain).

2.3

Fig. 2.3.1. Photograph of Marie Tharp.

• Library of Congress. (n.d.). “Marie Tharp.” [Online Image]. The Huffington Post. https://img.huffingtonpost.com/asset/5bb618d93c000020010d2917.jpeg?ops=scalefit_720_noupscale (Fair Use).

Dinoxorg. (Feb 7, 2013). The First Ocean Floor Maps. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=62D1NrSqVfI

Fig. 2.3.2. The core of the Earth as a magnet.

• TStein. (2008, Jun 21). “Earth’s Magnetic Field Confusion.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earths_Magnetic_Field_Confusion.svg {CC BY-SA 3.0)

Fig. 2.3.3. Magnetic reversals on the Earth over the past 169 Ma.

• Anomie, modified by Charlene Estrada. (2021, Apr 2). “Geomagnetic polarity 0-169 Ma.” [Online Image]. Public Domain.

Fig. 2.3.4. Animation of an oceanic spreading center.

• USGS. (2011, Feb 19). “Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.” [Online Animation]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#/media/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.3.5. Spreading center at Mid-Ocean Ridge with recorded magnetic reversals.

• USGS. (2012, Mar 12).  “Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic.Stripe.Magnetic.Anomalies.Scheme.svg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.3.6. Image of J. Tuzo Wilson.

• Stephen Morris. “John Tuzo Wilson in 1992”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:John_Tuzo_Wilson_in_1992.jpg (CC BY-SA 3.0).

Fig. 2.3.7. Our modern world map divided into the major lithospheric plates.

• USGS. “Tectonic Plates.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/slabs.html (Public Domain).

Khan Academy. (Feb 2, 2011). Plate tectonics: Difference between crust and lithosphere | Cosmology & Astronomy | Khan Academy. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f2BWsPVN7c4

Fig. 2.3.8. Convection cells within Earth’s mantle.

• USGS. “Oceanic spreading.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic_spreading.png (Public Domain).

Aus EarthEd. (Jun 17, 2020). Convection. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHr7ESa3_VA

2.4

Fig. 2.4.1. Cross-section of lithosphere and asthenosphere showing three main plate boundaries.

• USGS. “Main types of plate boundaries.” [Online Image]. This Dynamic Earth. https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/Vigil.html (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.4.2. Buzz Aldrin working on the moon.

• Kimika Yang. “Apollo 11: Buzz Aldrin at Work.” [Online Image]. Flickr.  https://www.flickr.com/photos/48054321@N05/28411508926 (Public Domain)

Fig. 2.4.3. Block diagram of oceanic-continental convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. “Oceanic-Continental Destructive Plate Boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (oceanic and continental crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F9uGSuyMclc

Fig 2.4.4. Block diagram of oceanic-oceanic convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. “Oceanic-oceanic destructive plate boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg#/media/File:Oceanic-oceanic_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY)

Fig. 2.4.5. Age of oceanic lithosphere.

• NOAA. (2009, Jun 8), “Age of Oceanic Lithosphere.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2008_age_of_oceans_plates.jpg. (Public Domain)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (oceanic crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3p1N3JzJzFQ

Fig. 2.4.6. Block diagram of continental-continental convergent boundary.

• domdomegg. (2015, Dec 25). “Continental-Continental Destructive.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons.  https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_same_direction.svg#/media/File:Continental-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY-4.0)

AGU. (Sep 15, 2020). Animation: Continents collide and break apart over time. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QhldiOaFqpE&t=39s

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Convergence (continental crust). [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdVy6ZQ25WU

2.5

Fig. 2.5.1. Block diagram of divergent boundary on continental crust.

• domdomegg. (2016 Aug 19).”Continental-continental constructive plate boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ListFiles&dir=prev&offset=20160127214358%7CSimple_diagram_of_animal_cell_%28numbers%29.svg&user=Domdomegg#/media/File:Continental-continental_constructive_plate_boundary.svg (CC BY 4.0).

Fig. 2.5.2. East African rift valley.

• Christoph Hormann. “Albertine Rift East African Rift (artificial rendering).” [Online Image]. View of the Earth. http://earth.imagico.de/view.php?site=rift2a (CC BY-SA 3.0)

EarthScience WesternAustralia. (Jul 27, 2020). Divergence. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pf5KPXP4exc

Fig. 2.5.3. Block diagram of divergent boundary on oceanic crust.

• domdomegg. (2016, Aug 20). “Oceanic-oceanic_constructive_plate_boundary.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-oceanic_constructive_plate_boundary.svg

NOC news. (Jun 20, 2016). Hydrothermal vent fields 1080p. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1koFEKfmLw

2.5.4. Age of oceanic lithosphere.

• NOAA. (2009, Jun 8), “Age of Oceanic Lithosphere.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2008_age_of_oceans_plates.jpg. (Public Domain)

2.6

Fig. 2.6.1. Block diagram of transform boundary.

• domdomegg. (2016, Aug 20). “transform.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oceanic-continental_destructive_plate_boundary.svg#/media/File:Continental-continental_conservative_plate_boundary_opposite_directions.svg (CC BY 4.0).

Fig. 2.6.2. Block diagram of right-lateral fault.

• Elizabeth Johnson. (n.d.). “Right Lateral Transform Fault”. [Online Image].  Visible Geology. https://app.visiblegeology.com/model.html#ahFzfnZpc2libGUtZ2VvbG9neXIPCxIFTW9kZWwYqunKmAEM (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.6.3. Block diagram of left-lateral fault.

• Elizabeth Johnson. (n.d.). “Left Lateral Transform Fault”. [Online Image].  Visible Geology. https://app.visiblegeology.com/model.html#ahFzfnZpc2libGUtZ2VvbG9neXIPCxIFTW9kZWwYubfLmAEM (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.6.4. Piqiang fault in China.

• Bram-fab. (2013, Jul 30). “Piqiang_Fault,_China_detail.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Piqiang_Fault,_China_detail.jpg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.5. Piqiang fault with red line.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 1.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step1.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.6. Piqiang fault with red line and blue circle.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 2.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-2.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.7. Piqiang fault with directional arrows.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 3.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-3.png (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.6.8. Annotated Piqiang fault.

• Charlene Estrada. (2021, Mar 21). “Step 4.” [Online Image]. Original image reference in 2.6.4. https://open.maricopa.edu/app/uploads/sites/119/2021/01/Step-4.png (Public Domain).

2.7

2.7.1. Map of Hawaiian-Emperor Seamount chain.

• NOAA. “Hawaii_hotspot.” [Online Image, adapted by Charlene Estrada]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian%E2%80%93Emperor_seamount_chain#/media/File:Hawaii_hotspot.jpg (Public Domain).

Storm. (Nov 5, 2010). Hawaii’s Hotspot. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bYv6V5EJAKc&feature=emb_imp_woyt

2.7.2. Map of San Francisco volcanic field of Northern Arizona.

• NASA. (n.d.). “SanFranciscoDEM.” [Online Image]. Arizona Geological Society. https://azgs.arizona.edu/photo/san-francisco-volcanic-field-arizona (CC BY)

2.8

Fig. 2.8.1. Map of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

• Gringer. (2009, Feb 11). “The Pacific Ring of Fire”. [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_of_Fire#/media/File:Pacific_Ring_of_Fire.svg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.2. Subduction zone at convergent boundary demonstrating hazards.

• USGS. (2000, Nov 30). “subduction zone graphic.” [Online Image]. USGS. https://www.usgs.gov/media/images/subduction-zone-graphic (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.3. Mount Everest and the Himalayan mountain range.

• shrimpo1967 (remix by Papa Lima Whiskey). (2012, Feb 3). “Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Everest#/media/File:Mount_Everest_as_seen_from_Drukair2_PLW_edit.jpg (CC BY-SA).

Fig. 2.8.4. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge between North America, South America, Eurasia, and Africa.

• NOAA. (2006, Nov 28). “1024px-Atlantic_bathymetry.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge#/media/File:Atlantic_bathymetry.jpg (Public Domain).

Fig. 2.8.5. Animation of an oceanic spreading center.

• USGS. (2011, Feb 19). “Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.” [Online Animation]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-ocean_ridge#/media/File:Mid-ocean_ridge_topography.gif (Public Domain).

USGS. (Dec 31, 2014). Elastic Rebound. [Video File]. https://www.usgs.gov/media/videos/elastic-rebound

2.9

Fig. 2.9.1. Supercontinent of Pangaea with modern continental borders.

• Fama Clamosa. (2019, Dec 31). “Pangaea_200Ma.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea#/media/File:Pangaea_200Ma.jpg CC BY-SA 4.0.

Christopher Scotese. (May 31, 2019). Scotese Plate Tectonics Paleogeography & Ice ages. [Online Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UevnAq1MTVA&feature=emb_imp_woyt

Fig. 2.9.2. Approximation of world map in 250 million years.

• Pokefan95. (2015, Sep 26). “PangeaUltimaRoughEstimation.” [Online Image]. Wikimedia Commons. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PangeaUltimaRoughEstimation.png (CC 0, Public Domain).

Instructor Resources and References

Study guide

DP22_CH02_Plate_Tectonics